Vein graphite deposits contain exceptionally high-purity graphite but remain minor contributors to global supply because their narrow, discontinuous, and structurally controlled geometry limits conventional approaches to scaling production. This paper argues that the principal constraint on vein graphite development is not resource quality, but supply-system design. Using vein graphite as a case study, a supply-system-level aggregation framework is proposed in which multiple distributed mining operations are integrated through centralized processing, quality management, logistics, and traceability systems. The framework demonstrates how coordination across operations can transform fragmented production into consistent, specification-compliant supply capable of meeting modern market requirements. The analysis further examines governance, market access, resource integration, and circular economy considerations that influence implementation. While developed for vein graphite, the framework is applicable to a broader class of structurally constrained and distributed mineral resources. The results suggest that supply-chain participation increasingly depends on supply-system integration and institutional coordination as much as on geological endowment.
Cameroon has increasingly prioritized mining as a pathway for economic diversification, while mineral production remains dominated by artisanal and small-scale mining and several large industrial projects that remain at early stages of development. Key issues include limited local benefit-sharing, weak regulatory enforcement, delays in industrial projects, and socio-environmental conflicts linked to foreign investment. The 2023 Mining Code sought to address these gaps through reforms that expand State participation in mining ventures, centralize the purchasing and marketing of gold and diamonds through the national mining company, and strengthen environmental and social oversight. Cameroon's February 2024 suspension from the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) reflected am only partly met civil-society engagement, alongside separate transparency and accountability weaknesses. This study applied a multi-sectoral analysis of national and regional socioeconomic data, including community-level surveys and a semi-quantitative mining-sustainability assessment to identify the sustainability gaps in Cameroon's mining sector. Positive and negative mining impacts were evaluated across economic, social and environmental dimensions, and the resulting sustainability patterns were subsequently interpreted in relation to selected United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The semi-quantitative assessment produced negative net scores for the economic, social and environmental dimensions. Sensitivity analysis indicated that adverse impacts predominate under the baseline assumptions, although the overall balance remains sensitive to uncertainty in impact magnitude. The proposed strategies are not prescriptive; rather, they represent practical options to help transform mining into a catalyst for inclusive growth, environmental stewardship, and equitable socioeconomic development consistent with international standards.
Guyana's 2021 Local Content Act is among the Caribbean's most ambitious efforts to ensure that newly discovered oil wealth generates broad-based domestic economic participation. Using synthetic control methods to construct counterfactuals from structurally comparable economies, this study examines the macroeconomic trajectory of Guyana after the implementation of the local content Act during an active oil boom. The results reveal that while Guyana achieved substantial post-2021 income gains relative to its counterfactual, these gains were accompanied by pronounced structural pressures. Specifically, estimates indicate a contraction in the share of manufacturing value-added and an appreciation of the real effective exchange rate associated with the post-2021 period. These findings suggest that local content mandate is insufficient to offset structural pressures associated with the boom itself.
The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) represents a transformative but gendered development project, prioritizing infrastructure and mineral extraction while largely overlooking women's economic agency in resource-rich regions such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and the former Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). Drawing on a Feminist Political Economy (FPE) lens, this qualitative study investigates how women's entrepreneurial participation is shaped within CPEC-linked mineral economies characterized by enclave extraction, patriarchal norms, and gender-blind regional connectivity frameworks. Through 40 semi-structured interviews, three focus group discussions, observation and document analysis, we find that women recognise economic opportunities but face multi-layered exclusion: socio-cultural restrictions on mobility and legitimacy, institutional distance and bureaucratic barriers, and enclave-driven procurement systems that privilege male networks. Four interrelated themes capture these dynamics. In response, women deploy adaptive strategies—home-based enterprises, informal finance, and strategic male partnerships—that demonstrate resilience yet reproduce precarious, informalized economic engagement. The study argues that without deliberate gender-responsive policies, CPEC's mineral corridors risk reinforcing extractive enclaves rather than fostering inclusive development. We conclude that moving "beyond enclave extraction" requires institutionalizing gender-inclusive local content, facilitating women's access to finance and certification, and embedding gender equity into the design of Special Economic Zones and regional trade initiatives under CPEC and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) frameworks.
How do supply concentration and political control interact in strategic mineral systems during periods of technological transition and geopolitical tension? This article compares four alloying metals central to twentieth-century industrial warfare—manganese, chromium, nickel, and tungsten—between the late interwar period and the contemporary critical-minerals economy. It combines the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI), used to measure production concentration, with a new Mineral Governance Index (MGI), designed to capture the dominant mode of control over mine output.The results show that vulnerability cannot be explained by concentration alone. In the 1930s, geopolitical tension was associated with rapid output growth, partial diversification, and stronger political control, but each metal followed a distinct trajectory: manganese became more state-centred, chromium diversified under stronger imperial and public oversight, tungsten underwent sharp politicization, and nickel combined high producer concentration with corporate dominance. In the contemporary period, these relationships are more uneven: manganese and chromium combine large-scale output with limited direct sovereign control, whereas nickel and tungsten display stronger combinations of concentration and politicization.Strategic vulnerability is therefore produced by the interaction between concentration and governance. While the logic of dependency endures, its geography has shifted from territorial empires to technological and financial hierarchies, and from ownership to network-based governance. The movement from “war over strategic metals” to “critical metals at war” thus represents not a rupture, but a reconfiguration of enduring dynamics linking geology, markets, and state power.
This study aimed to map the global nickel ore trade networks and the competitiveness of nickel-exporting countries. Trade Map data for nickel ores and concentrates under Harmonized System (HS) 2604 for 2012-2023 were analysed using social network analysis, revealed comparative advantage, revealed symmetric comparative advantage, Spearman's rank correlation, and an integrated Social Network Analysis-Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (SNA-RSCA) classification. The results show that the network remained concentrated around a limited number of highly connected economies despite changes in bilateral links and community membership. China maintained the most prominent demand-oriented position through high trade intensity, broad supplier connectivity, brokerage potential, and network accessibility. RSCA is positively associated with strength and out-degree, whereas its relationships with in-degree, betweenness, and closeness are weak and statistically insignificant. Nickel ore export advantage is therefore closely associated with trade intensity and destination reach rather than with import connectivity or intermediary position. The SNA-RSCA typology distinguishes high-network-position/high-RSCA countries, high-network-position/low-RSCA countries, low-network-position/high-RSCA countries, and low-network-position/low-RSCA countries. Movement across these categories shows that structural prominence and revealed ore-export advantage may evolve independently, particularly when industrial policy redirects raw-ore trade toward domestic processing. The findings demonstrate that resource endowment, network centrality, and export competitiveness are distinct but related dimensions and provide a diagnostic basis for differentiated policies on trade, supply security, and market diversification.
Greenland has emerged as a focal point in international debates on critical mineral supply security, driven by its endowment of rare earth elements (REEs), its strategic position in the Arctic, and its potential relevance to Western supply-chain autonomy. This article provides an integrated assessment of Greenland's two most advanced REE projects—Kvanefjeld and Tanbreez—combining geological characterisation, project-level economic analysis, supply chain architecture, and regulatory appraisal to evaluate the conditions under which identified resources could translate into effective supply. Drawing on analyses by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS, 2024), the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2023), and the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC, 2023), together with project feasibility data and peer-reviewed literature, the study identifies a "triple constraint" comprising: a restrictive uranium-co-mineralisation regime —confirmed and hardened by the Government of Greenland's final rejection, on 26 June 2026, of Greenland Minerals' application to renew the Kvanefjeld exploration licence—an absence of industrial infrastructure, and the global concentration of REE separation and refining capacity in China (approximately 85% of global output). A structured scenario analysis spanning 2026–2040 evaluates three development pathways—integrated production, option preservation, and midstream-alliance-first—each defined with a single, internally consistent unit of analysis and benchmarked qualitatively against analogous projects (Lynas Mt Weld, MP Materials Mountain Pass, Strange Lake) rather than presented as precise financial forecasts. Results indicate that Greenland's near-term contribution is best understood as strategic optionality—informed by, but not a formal quantitative application of, real options theory—rather than shovel-ready supply. Policy recommendations emphasise regulatory clarity on uranium co-products, coordinated investment in allied midstream processing capacity, modular infrastructure development, and meaningful engagement with Inuit self-determination and free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) standards as prerequisites for converting Arctic mineral endowment into reliable and legitimate strategic supply.
The transition to a climate-neutral economy has intensified demand for critical raw materials (CRM), prompting the European Union to adopt the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) to secure supply and promote circularity. Among its objectives, the CRMA seeks to accelerate the recovery of CRM from extractive waste. However, the implementation of these ambitions depends on existing legal frameworks that were not designed for large-scale resource recovery. This article examines the institutional and legal challenges arising from the interaction between the CRMA and key areas of EU environmental law, with a particular focus on the Water Framework Directive and EU waste legislation. Through a doctrinal analysis supported by case law and examples from northern Sweden, the paper demonstrates how overlapping regulatory regimes create structural tensions between the CRMA's acceleration logic and established environmental safeguards. Water law imposes strict non-deterioration requirements that may delay or prevent project authorization, while waste law introduces significant uncertainty regarding material classification and marketability. The article identifies structural regulatory tensions: While the CRMA promotes the recovery of CRM and advances circularity and net-zero ambitions, it operates within legal frameworks that impose stringent constraints. In doing so, it effectively collides with environmental protection rules that pursue the same overarching goals, risking the obstruction of circular solutions. This tension reflects deeper inconsistencies in EU law and calls for greater legal coherence, clearer rules, and better alignment between environmental and industrial objectives.
Global decarbonisation has increased energy transition mineral (ETM) demand for renewable energy technologies. Governments are devising policies on ETM value chains to increase their mineral reserves, maximise revenues and economic benefits, develop domestic expertise and value adding, and strengthen their international alliances. In parallel, they need to address the environmental, social and governance risks, legacies, and cumulative impacts of industrial expansion. Focusing on Australia, Chile, and Finland, we examine where these OECD countries focus their policies, interrogating whether they balance supply security and value chain opportunities, with social and environmental governance. We find a strong policy emphasis on industrial development and rapid growth. While environmental governance receives some attention, the governance of social impacts and issues is less developed. Historical mining industry emphasis shaped influential mining-focused “policy communities” in Australia and Chile, whereas Finland's policy community adopted a broader industrial ecosystems approach. Critical engagement policy networks contribute to broadening policy focus to encompass social and environmental governance, and Indigenous rights through innovations in policy. Examples include Chile's notion of industrial and environmental knowledge as a public good, and Finland's increased municipality powers. If implemented, including via Indigenous Free, Prior and Informed Consent, the policy innovations that critical engagement policy networks advance have the potential to help balance industrial growth and social and environmental priorities.
Phosphogypsum (PG), a by-product of wet-process phosphoric acid production, presents a promising secondary source of rare earth elements (REEs) due to its significant REEs concentrations and high production volumes. This study has two main objectives: first, to analyze and compare the chemical and mineralogical compositions of two PG types, magmatic PG (MPG) from the Wizów Chemical Plant in Poland and sedimentary PG (SPG) from the Jorf Lasfar plant in Morocco, using various characterization techniques; and second, to explore the leaching behavior of REEs from PG using different acids and additives. Leaching experiments were carried out with 2 M H2SO4 alone, as well as in combination with oxidizing agents (NaClO3 and H2O2) and reducing agents (Fe and Zn), which are introduced here for the first time to improve REEs extraction from PG. The results demonstrated that MPG achieved a high REE recovery rate of 85% using 2 M H2SO4 alone. In contrast, SPG showed a lower recovery of 34% under the same conditions, which increased to 46% with H2O2 and 48% with Fe, while the combined use of NaClO3 and Fe resulted in 47% recovery. These additives had no significant effect on MPG. Micro-EDXRF analysis revealed that the disparity in leaching performance is attributed to the differing REEs occurrences: MPG hosts REEs as soluble salts, whereas in SPG, REEs are structurally incorporated into the gypsum matrix via isomorphic substitution, making them less accessible. Effective REEs recovery from PG not only mitigates environmental contamination but also supports its valorization in agriculture and construction, aligning with circular economy and sustainability goals.
Conflict between Indigenous communities and mining firms operating on their land often results in negative consequences for all parties, with Indigenous peoples suffering loss of life, land, and health, and mining firms incurring significant financial and operational costs. Despite a growing literature on the impacts of these conflicts on Indigenous communities and firm strategies to manage conflict, there remains a gap in understanding the magnitude of firms’ financial costs, their distribution across functions, and the potential for proactive engagement to reduce such impacts. This paper examines 28 cases of Indigenous rights-related conflicts for mining firms in Peru between 1996 and 2025, drawing on over 920 publicly available documents. Building on the cost typology developed by Franks et al. (2014), we systematically code financial costs by magnitude and business function, such as lost productivity (operations), personnel (human resources), and proactive investment (external affairs). Across cases, lost productivity emerged as the most frequent and expensive cost, followed by redress and capital losses, with total conflict-related costs exceeding $31.9B. We find that higher proactive engagement spending was associated with fewer and less severe disruptions, although managing conflict remains difficult because costs span multiple business functions. The findings contribute to the literature on mining conflict, social risk, and political risk by showing how localized conflict can trigger cross-functional cost cascades. They also suggest that firms, investors, and regulators should treat Indigenous rights-related conflicts as enterprise-level risks that require earlier engagement and cross-functional strategic planning.
Resource frontiers are often home to communities whose worldviews are deeply interconnected with the natural environment. Yet, prevailing policy frameworks frequently impose divisions - separating the tangible from the intangible and the natural from the cultural. Although human rights discourses hold significant potential, they too can fail to capture the subtleties of cultural values. As a result, important values across landscapes risk being overlooked or inadequately considered in resource activities. This paper examines examples of regulatory and industry-led (voluntary) approaches to addressing impacts from mining on the cultural values of water. Our research focuses on the language and scope of written instruments. We conclude that while some evidence of integration exists, dominant paradigms may require reconsideration and greater consistency in terminology is needed.
Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is increasingly recognised as a critical source of livelihoods and minerals required for the global energy transition. Yet despite decades of formalisation, the sector remains highly informal, with uneven governance, gender bias and persistent inequality due to a multitude of reasons. Therefore, this systematic integrative review analyses the interplay of governance, technological modernisation and market integration factors in shaping ASM modernisation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from an interdisciplinary perspective. Sixty-five peer-reviewed studies published between 2006 and 2026 were analysed using a thematic synthesis and Gioia-inspired coding. Six interrelated questions about the drivers behind informality, licensing bureaucracy, elite capture, professionalisation, modernisation with a gender lens, and ASM–LSM relations were asked. Findings show that modernisation is a process mediated by governance, rather than technology. Formalisation does not mean just licensing but also secure mining rights, institutional capacity, technical support, financial inclusion and continuous support after formalisation. However, high licensing fees, bureaucracy, insecure property rights and layered governance sustain informality. Modernisation can also drive professionalisation and elite capture, while gender-neutral reforms often deepen inequalities for women. The review also notes several emerging trends that indicate the collaborative cohabitation of ASM - LSM can be a pathway to sustainable sectoral development. The study advances a relational understanding of ASM modernisation by showing how governance, technology, markets and social relations interact to produce divergent livelihood outcomes. It provides a current evidence base for more inclusive formalisation policies, gender-responsive governance and partnership-based ASM development in SSA.
The criticality of minerals and metals is determined by a wide range of impact factors, whose selection and application vary significantly across methodologies, countries, and time periods. This variability reflects local conditions as well as historical and contemporary perspectives, leading to differences in criticality outcomes. This study presents an analytical synthesis of impact factors based on a detailed literature review of historical, governmental, and independently published (scientific or industrial) criticality assessment frameworks. Analysis of the resulting dataset reveals that variation among criticality assessments is systematically associated with differences in economic structure, geopolitical exposure, and value-chain positioning. Based on these recurring patterns, the study develops a typology of criticality assessment approaches comprising supply-risk-centric, industrial-strategy-oriented, and resource-endowment-focused models. Although prior studies have examined a range of impact factors for specific approaches, no research has yet presented a holistic and categorised global data set. This study addresses this gap by systematically collecting and reviewing data from scientific publications and governmental and industrial reports to identify approximately 730 criticality-related parameters, which were methodically reduced to 49 key impact factors, classified into six categories: Economic, Market, Technical, Sociopolitical, Geopolitical, and Environmental. The categories and included parameters are mapped across four fundamental pillars of the whole mineral life cycle: exploration, mining, processing, and end-product manufacturing. The resulting framework provides a structured integration of impact factors across the mineral value chain, accounting for dynamic market conditions, geopolitical changes, and environmental considerations, as well as future resource management and policy analysis, while helping understand why criticality assessments differ across countries and institutions.
Ghana's ecosystems are increasingly threatened by unlawful artisanal and marginal-scale mining (AMSM), which causes severe environmental degradation, including river siltation, soil nutrient loss, vegetation decline, and biodiversity depletion. The current study had an objective of proposing effective mechanisms, which are pivoted on the polluter pays principle (PPP) within Ghana's context as a reference framework for the creation of enforceable environmental laws. A total of 330 respondents comprising 10 mining communities, five (5) government agencies and one mining association across four regions in Ghana were contacted to respond to questions on Ghana's unlawful mining operations and ways to mitigate these activities. Demographic data from the 300 unlawful miners revealed that 57.67% were males and the majority (63.67%) being over 30 years. 36.67% had secondary/technical education while 59.33% were not employed. Perceptions from respondents provided invaluable insights that could be pivoted on fundamental tenets of the PPP to curtail destructive ecosystem practices from the mining sector. Based on these recommendations, context-specific strategies to strengthen PPP implementation in Ghana included: stricter policy adherence and enforcement against unlawful AMSM, enhanced coordination among formal and informal stakeholders through integrated information systems, and the deployment of modern technologies to trace both past and current polluters. By strictly adapting the PPP to Ghana's realities, the study offers insights for advancing environmental governance, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable development across the wider Sub-Saharan African region.
Exploitation of critical raw materials (CRMs), including rare earth elements (REEs), is growing rapidly in Quebec but raises environmental and health concerns that may compromise their social acceptability. This article analyses the knowledge, perceptions and expectations of actors, whether or not they are involved in REEs exploitation in Quebec, in order to identify the characteristics associated with the social acceptability of this sector. Thus, 1752 actors from both metropolitan and mining areas participated through online surveys. The sample is non-probabilistic and unevenly distributed between the two areas (1557 and 195 respondents respectively), so the findings describe the population reached by the survey rather than the Quebec population as a whole. Collected data were processed using several qualitative (lexical and co-occurrence analysis) and quantitative (descriptive statistics and decision tree) approaches. Through the decision trees, the results indicate that knowledge regarding these resources in Quebec remains generally low (21.8% for CRMs; 30.6% for REEs) and varies according to exposure to mining activities, gender, level of education, age and place of residence. Furthermore, more than half of the respondents are neutral or indifferent towards development of REEs in Quebec, while opponents emphasize the environmental and health impacts (pollution and effects on water supplies). In fostering the social acceptability of these projects, the study recommends strong community involvement in decisions that are related to exploitation of REEs, thereby aligning with expectations of the 36.9% of respondents wishing to participate in the decision process.
