This study examined how individual, relational, and organizational factors relate to school belonging in early adolescence. Multilevel models used population-level data from 23,421 Grade 6-8 students in 365 British Columbia schools, with predictors centered within cluster and school means entered at Level 2 to separate within-from between-school associations. Belonging was lower among students in higher grades. Within schools, optimism, connectedness with adults and peers, and low victimization were associated with greater belonging, and adult and peer connectedness interacted. Between schools, school-average connectedness with adults and, especially, school-average victimization showed stronger associations than their within-school counterparts. Students in standalone middle schools reported lower belonging than students in elementary schools, whereas secondary and K-12 settings did not differ, after adjustment for grade, individual characteristics, and relational climate. The model explained 45.6% of within-school and 73% of between-school variance. Findings position belonging as co-constructed by students, school relational climate, and grade-span configuration.
Studies suggest that men and women with stronger gender stereotypes are more likely to report that men make funnier jokes than women. However, the extent to which this perception is influenced by social context remains unclear. Here, we attempted to provide initial evidence for this question by analysing the interaction between gender stereotypes and the perception and production of humour in 10- to 12-year-old children ( N = 137) in Western Europe. The children rated the funniness of verbal jokes (humour perception) and created humorous jokes themselves (humour production). In humour perception, we found an effect of gender but no significant effect of gender stereotypes. Boys attributed the funniest jokes more often to boys than girls did. Overall, humour production was not significantly associated with gender stereotypes. However, children who rated themselves as being more feminine produced funnier jokes. In summary, this study did not find clear evidence that gender stereotypes influence how 10- to 12-year-old children perceive and produce humour.
Sexting is increasingly common among adolescents; early engagement has notable health implications. Using logistic regression, we examined associations between online privacy cognitions (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; measured using the Adolescent Cognitions about Online Privacy scale) and sending and receiving sexts in a sample of 10-14-year-olds (N = 960). Age, gender, race, and impulsivity were included as covariates. Specifically, more privacy-protective attitudes were associated with a lower likelihood of sending sexts (AOR = .724, [95% CI .635-.826]). Greater privacy-related subjective norms (i.e., viewing others' thoughts and behaviors as privacy-promotive) were associated with a lower likelihood of receiving sexts (AOR = .602, [.477-.761]). Impulsivity was associated with a greater likelihood of both sending (AOR = 1.430, [95% CI 1.013-1.746]) and receiving (AOR = 1.392, [1.248-1.554]) sexts. White race was associated with sending (AOR = 1.330, [1.013-1.746]) sexts. Better understanding adolescent privacy cognitions may illuminate potential intervention targets for digital risk behaviors.
The study examined the role of digital parenting, explicitly focusing on the effectiveness of parental mediation regarding YouTube and online gaming. The analysis highlighted the complex yet distinct nature of media usage duration and dependency by employing a dyadic approach incorporating both children’s and parents’ perspectives. While restrictive mediation effectively reduced usage time on platforms like YouTube, it also appears to increase the risk of over-dependency in both YouTube and gaming contexts. The findings are especially noteworthy when children perceive their parents as active mediators, suggesting substantial benefits in mitigating dependency on both platforms. Parents’ perception of the appropriateness of their guidance in children’s media use was more effective in reducing usage time than in alleviating media dependency. Another significant finding revealed through this dyadic approach is the impact of smartphone use as a “digital pacifier” on increasing children’s digital media usage time and potentially leading to dependency.
Somatic symptoms are common in adolescence and can predict later emotional distress, academic challenges, and chronic health problems. Their developmental origins, particularly before menarche, remain poorly understood. This cross-sectional study examined associations between psychological distress, parental modeling of pain behavior, pain sensitivity, and somatic symptom burden in premenarchal adolescents. A community sample of 228 adolescents (Age M = 11.3, SD = 0.9) completed standardized measures of anxiety, depression, stress, somatic symptoms, and parent-reported pain modeling. Participants also underwent laboratory-based bladder and pressure pain threshold testing. In multivariable regression, Tanner stage ( β = .11), anxiety (.31), depression (.23), parental pain modeling (.15), and visceral pain sensitivity (.13) were independently associated with greater somatic symptoms. Results highlight a constellation of psychological, familial, and physiological factors related to somatic symptoms in early adolescence, suggesting that early identification of these risks could inform prevention strategies before puberty, when more persistent symptom patterns may emerge.
Childhood maltreatment is a well-established risk factor for adolescent suicide, yet it remains unclear which specific types of maltreatment are most central in relation to suicide risk and how regulatory emotional self-efficacy (RESE) may shape this relationship over time. To address this gap, the present study aimed to identify the core types of childhood maltreatment, examine their longitudinal associations with adolescent suicide risk, and test the mediating role of RESE. A sample of 1,246 Chinese middle school students (Mage = 13.58 +/- 0.76) was assessed at three time points over a 12-month period. Network analysis identified emotional abuse and emotional neglect as the core types of childhood maltreatment most strongly interconnected with suicide risk. Latent growth modeling revealed that the overall level of suicide risk among adolescents decreased over a year, whereas RESE showed a linear increase over the same period. A longitudinal mediation model further indicated that the initial level of RESE partially mediated the associations of emotional abuse and neglect with initial suicide risk, and fully mediated the associations between these maltreatment types and the rate of change in suicide risk over time. These findings suggest that emotional abuse and neglect have stronger predictive effects on adolescent suicide risk than other types of childhood maltreatment, and that enhancing RESE may be a promising target for prevention and intervention.
Sexual minority status and gender nonconformity (GNC) place youth at heightened risk for victimization. This cross-sectional study examined whether sexual orientation and GNC were associated with bullying victimization among 1,897 cisgender students (ages 13-15) from 40 Norwegian secondary schools. Students identifying their sexual orientation as lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, or questioning (LGBQQ) were compared with heterosexual peers. LGBQQ students reported higher rates of harassment related to sexual orientation and gender expression than heterosexual students. However, in analyses of general bullying, GNC rather than sexual orientation showed the strongest association for both boys and girls. Among boys, bullying victimization levels were highest among heterosexual boys reporting high gender nonconformity. Among girls, bullying was associated with GNC regardless of sexual orientation. These findings highlight the need for prevention efforts that address gender expression as a key factor associated with youth victimization.
This study examines different aspects of sexting behaviors, along with motivations, attitudes, and individual differences associated with sexting among two cohorts of Spanish adolescents. The sample consists of 559 girls and 501 boys of early (12-14 years) adolescence (N = 1060, M = 13.15; SD = 0.75). Results indicate cohort-, gender- and age-differences in sexting behaviors. The prevalence of Sexters was lower at 9.05% in 2017 compared to 2023 at 12.60%. Different active and passive sexting behaviors were more frequent in 2023 (sending, receiving), and with older age (receiving, responding). Boys showed more active sexting behaviors (responding, sending, public sharing). Cohort-related changes in particular motivations and favorable attitudes toward sexting were found. Older age, positive attitudes, and impulsivity, but not self-esteem, predicted belonging to the group of Sexters. These findings can guide educators in fostering safe and informed discussions about sexting, as it becomes more common among young Spanish adolescents.
Emotion socialization (ES) has been studied primarily in the context of children's negative emotions. We evaluated whether 1) mothers and fathers are similar in their ES (savoring and dampening) of positive emotions; and 2) maternal and paternal ES are differentially related to preadolescents' psychosocial adjustment and attachment security. Preadolescents (N = 106; age M(SD) = 11.68 (1.03) years; 52 boys) reported parental ES, self-worth, and attachment security. Mothers reported children's psychosocial adjustment. Preadolescents perceived mothers as savoring more, but not dampening more, than fathers. Paternal dampening was associated with children's greater internalizing and conduct problems, and fewer prosocial behaviors. Maternal and paternal savoring were positively related to preadolescents' self-worth, however, only paternal savoring had a unique effect. Maternal and paternal savoring and dampening were associated with preadolescents' attachment security with each respective parent. Findings underscore the importance of perceived ES of positive emotions for preadolescents' psychosocial adjustment and attachment security.
This study examined how daily sleep allocation-nighttime sleep and midday nap duration-influences adolescents' academic performance and physical health, with a focus on gender differences. A school-based survey was conducted among Chinese adolescents aged 13-15 years (N = 27236). Sleep habits were assessed via caregiver-reported questionnaires. Academic and physical outcomes were assessed using core-subject scores and fitness evaluations. Three-way ANCOVAs revealed a curvilinear association between nighttime sleep and both outcomes, peaking at 8-9 h. Midday napping was associated with better academic achievement and health, but its benefits were modulated by total daily sleep and gender. Girls exhibited greater resilience to nighttime sleep restriction (<8 h) and benefited more from longer naps (>30 min), whereas boys need adequate nighttime sleep and benefited from short-to-moderate naps (15-60 min). These findings highlight the importance of a balanced biphasic sleep pattern-8 to 9 h of nighttime sleep plus a 30-60 min nap, offering practical implications for adolescent sleep guidelines and school scheduling policies.
Rises in adolescent media use have paralleled increases in youth major depressive disorder (MDD) and suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). Studies linking screen time and decreased mental health focus on older adolescents and overlook media content. This study examined how frequency and content of media related to MDD and STBs in children and early adolescents enriched for psychopathology. Youth ages 8-12 (N = 191; M age = 10.13) completed clinical interviews assessing MDD and STBs. They reported how frequently they engage with (a) different media formats, (b) media portraying different mature content, and (c) media centered on suicide. Greater self-reported media use, regardless of format, was associated with increased odds of MDD. Engagement with violent and substance-related themes was associated with increased odds of both MDD and STBs. Increased engagement with suicide-related content was specifically associated with STBs. Findings underscore the importance of considering content in addition to duration of media exposure.
Evidence suggests that the association between parenting styles and internalizing problems may vary as a function of children's demographic characteristics. Although sex and developmental/contextual-related factors have each been examined as moderators, their joint moderating role remains largely unexplored. The present study examined whether longitudinal associations between parenting styles and internalizing problems are jointly moderated by sex and grade level, focusing on students in late elementary and early middle school. Participants were 732 predominantly White students from Cyprus (54.4% female), aged 10-15 years, recruited from urban and rural schools across three districts. Data were collected at two time points and analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results indicated that associations between parenting styles and internalizing problems varied across grade levels and sex, highlighting meaningful interactive effects. Analyses that consider sex or grade level in isolation may obscure important contextual dynamics shaping links between parenting styles and internalizing problems.
The present study examined the longitudinal associations and directionality of effects between self-concept and eating disorder symptoms in late childhood and early adolescence. A total of 380 participants (Time 1: 52.2% female; Mage = 9.97 years, SD = 0.84, range = 8-12 years) completed self-report questionnaires annually for 3 years. Cross-lagged panel models were used to examine the associations over time between global and domain-specific self-concept (i.e., physical appearance, scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance and behavioral conduct) and eating disorder symptoms. The findings revealed that lower global self-concept and appearance-related self-concept predicted higher eating disorder symptoms over time, and vice versa. Eating disorder symptoms also negatively predicted scholastic competence and behavioral conduct over time. These results underscore the developmental interplay between self-concept and eating disorder symptoms, highlighting the importance of early self-concept interventions to prevent eating disorder symptomatology in children transitioning to adolescence.
Academic pressure is increasingly recognized as a factor in declining adolescent mental health, yet this phenomenon remains underexplored among early adolescents in primary education. This study investigates sources of academic pressure among 585 Dutch students (286 boys, 294 girls; aged 11-12) in their final year of primary school, and examines its associations with sex, social connectedness, and mental health. One in six students reported experiencing academic pressure, primarily due to homework or school demands. Academic pressure was already linked to mental health concerns at this age, with no sex differences observed. Higher levels of school belonging and family support were associated with lower academic pressure. However, the hypothesized moderating role of social connectedness was not confirmed: students under high pressure reported more psychosomatic complaints regardless of support levels. These findings underscore the need to monitor academic pressure and its mental health correlates in primary school.
This study examined youths' perceptions of sociometric assessments, and whether these perceptions were especially negative for youths with low social status. Participants were 598 primary and secondary school students (47% female, Mage = 11.80 years, SD = 1.16) who completed a sociometric assessment and rated their immediate experiences with the assessment and its short-term impact one week later. Participants rated the sociometric assessment as not difficult, enjoyable and useful for improving classroom dynamics. One week later, their reports remained positive, with some nuances. Secondary school students provided lower ratings than primary school students. Least popular nominations were associated with less enjoyment, less perceived usefulness, and more relief one week later. Surprisingly, least liked nominations were associated with less difficulty, and in secondary school, with more enjoyment. The results do not support a negative impact of sociometric assessment on early adolescents in general or on those with low status specifically.
This paper investigates the peer social capital of immigrant-origin adolescents and their agency in mobilizing their peer relationships across three schools in the U.S. and Switzerland. Data from 22 immigrant-origin middle school students encompassed 41 hours of semi-structured interview data, including egocentric social network data. Participants in both contexts were agents of their social networks and developed and leveraged their peer social capital selectively and with the purpose of being supported, being validated, feeling accepted, and being friends with integrous and trustworthy peers (i.e., no "bad friends"). The findings illustrate how students in different contexts perceived different social categories (e.g., race/ethnicity, immigrant background) as important for social capital mobilization, and how school disciplinary measures stigmatized some students as "bad friends." Based on these findings, the paper highlights the need to critically examine the consequences of student grouping, school policies, and disciplinary measures on students' social integration.
Priming or activating memories of (in)secure interactions with parents is expected to activate in-the-moment attachment feelings (aka state-like attachment, as compared to trait-like attachment). In this study, we tested whether priming secure and avoidant attachment memories affected state attachment security, anxiety, and avoidance and whether prime effects depended on trait attachment in 56 early adolescents (42.9% boys; 57.1% girls) aged 10-12 years (M = 10.75, SD = 0.61). Results showed that the primes affected secure and anxious state attachment, but not avoidant state attachment. Only one effect emerged after adjustment for multiple testing: secure state attachment decreased after the avoidant prime. Trait attachment did not moderate the prime effects on state attachment. Although effects are subtle, attachment states do seem to change depending on experimentally activated attachment memories.
This study investigated bidirectional relationships between multidimensional Chinese parental psychological control (PC), specifically relational induction (guilt/shame tactics emphasizing family sacrifices/reputation), social comparison shame (unfavorable comparisons with others), and harsh control (hostility/rejection), and adolescent psychological, behavioral, and academic outcomes. Data from 1,309 adolescents (Mean age = 13.73, SD = 1.17; 53.78% boys) across three waves were analyzed using Random Intercept-Cross-Lagged Panel Models. Between families, harsh control was associated with poor outcomes in all domains. Within families, parental relational induction predicted increased adolescent mental health problems and decreased school engagement, parental social comparison shame predicted reduced adolescent life satisfaction, whereas parental harsh control unexpectedly predicted higher school engagement among adolescents over time. Bidirectional analyses revealed that adolescent maladjustment (e.g., mental health issues and low school engagement) also predicted subsequent increases in perceived PC. Findings challenge assumptions about cultural adaptiveness, revealing nuanced risks in prevalent PC practices.
Self-disclosure, sharing personal and often affective information with others, is foundational for relationship development and well-being. Internal state language (ISL), or references to thoughts, emotions and desires, is one mechanism that may support these processes by helping adolescents communicate their experiences and signal their understanding of others. We examined ISL references during a hypothetical picture task in which early adolescents (N = 79) described how they would respond to social situations involving siblings and friends, specifically whether narrative characters would disclose personal information to one another or not. ISL use was comparable across disclosed and nondisclosed narratives, valence, and relationship contexts. However, for adolescents who seldom included disclosure to best friends in their narratives, frequent references to cognitions were linked with fewer descriptions of emotional support. These findings suggest that, beyond disclosure, ISL may reflect adolescents' emerging socioemotional understanding and contribute to the development of social competence in close relationships.
Research increasingly indicates that expressive flexibility is a marker for adaptive functioning, yet the role of family environment in shaping youth's expressive flexibility remains uninvestigated. The present study examined between- and within-family associations between family expressiveness and early adolescents' expressive flexibility via Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Modeling (RI-CLPM). A total of 274 Chinese adolescents (M-age = 13.56) reported perceptions of family expressiveness and expressive flexibility at six-month intervals over one year. At the between-family level, expressive flexibility was positively correlated with positive family expressiveness and negatively correlated with negative family expressiveness. At the within-family level, increased positive family expressiveness predicted later improvement in adolescents' expressive flexibility, but changes in negative family expressiveness did not predict subsequent expressive flexibility. Results support the importance of family emotional climate for adolescents' adaptive emotion regulation. Promoting a climate that adolescents perceive as positively expressive might be particularly beneficial for their development of expressive flexibility.
