Retained placenta (RP) is a syndrome that affects all species of domestic animals, including bovines. Retained placenta can lead to life-threatening complications and is considered an emergency in theriogenology practice. Various factors underlie the occurrence of RP, including defects in the immunological rejection of the placenta, disorders in myometrial contractions, infections, disorders in the release or function of proteolytic enzymes in the placenta, induction of parturition, preterm birth, abortion, stillbirth, excessive body weight, senility, bacterial andfungal toxins, inbreeding, abnormal hormonal environment at peri-parturition, injuries of the placenta, elective caesarean, environmental stressful conditions, nutritional deficiencies, metabolic disturbances, and breed.Depending on the underlying cause(s), different measures have been suggested to prevent RP, such as feeding a balanced ration, proper immunisation against diseases, supplying a dry and clean environment for parturition,using breeds with a low incidence of dystocia or RP. There are several methods for treating the disease, including manual removal of membranes, injection of collagenase into the umbilical arteries of the retained membranes,uterine lavage, hormone therapy, antibiotic therapy and others. This review highlights the effective means of management of RP in cattle.
Urinary tract infections in dogs are common in veterinary practice and one of the main reasons for the use of antimicrobial drugs. They are mostly caused by bacterial infections, while viral, fungal and parasitic infections account for less than 1% of cases. In practice, treatment usually starts with antimicrobial drugs selected based on existing clinical experience, without knowing the specific pathogen or its sensitivity to a particular drug. The aim of this study was to present the local prevalence andantimicrobial resistance of the most common bacterial pathogens of dog urinary tract infections isolated from samples obtained in the city Split, Croatia and its surrounding areas. From January 2019 to July 2024, 897 urine samples were analysed bacteriologically, of which 307 were positive. Of the total number of bacterial isolates, 194 (62.8%) were Gram-negative bacteria and 115 (37.2%) were Gram-positive. The most frequently isolated bacterial pathogens were E. coli (45%), coagulase-positive Staphylococcus sp. (13.9%), Proteus sp. (10%), beta-haemolytic Streptococcus sp. (9.7%), coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp. (7.4%), Enterococcus sp. (5.5%), Pseudomonas sp. (4.2%) and Klebsiella sp. (2.6%). Data on local susceptibility and resistance patterns of the most common uropathogens can help clinicians in the selection of antimicrobial drugs and can serve as a basis for antimicrobial resistance monitoring in the coming years.
This review paper briefly overviews various methods used to detect and identify Salmonella, a common foodborne zoonotic pathogen in veterinary medicine. Salmonella bacteria is mainly found in food products and, when ingested, causes severe gastrointestinal symptoms. Due to the ongoing presence of pathogenic Salmonella in food production systems, it poses a serious public health threat. Therefore, a constant need remains to enhance identification and detection methods capable of identifying this pathogen and preventing outbreaks. The conventional and widely-used culture-based method can be considered the gold standard. However, it is time-consuming and laborious, as is traditional serotyping by slide agglutination. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) offers faster detection with higher specificity by identifying Salmonella antigens or antibodies. However, some laboratories prefer other methods due to limited sensitivity and the time it takes to establish an immune response. Therefore, methods like subtyping or advanced molecular techniques have evolved over the years: polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods and next-generation sequencing (NGS) provide rapid and accurate identification of Salmonella.Unlike PCR-based methods that target specific genes, NGS provides a sequence of complete genomes. Mass spectrometry andFourier transform infrared spectroscopy are also used, while biosensors are still in the early stages of technological development. This paper discusses the progress of identification and detection approaches for Salmonella, emphasising their basic principles, applications, and performances, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each method.
Raw feeding of dogs and cats is becoming increasingly popular worldwide. The raw material for such feed is muscles, offal and bones from mammals, fish or poultry. The production of such pet food is regulated by the European Commission legislation and should be carried out in a facility approved by the competent authority. Although proponents of such a diet point to the positive effects on the health and condition of the animals, studies have shown that raw pet food often contains pathogenic microorganisms. In the analysis of 28 samples of frozen raw pet food, we detected Salmonella spp. in 21.4% of the samples, Enterobacteriaceae more than 5000 cfu/g in 85.7% of the samples, Listeria monocytogenes more than 10 cfu/g in 39.3% of the samples, while Campylobacter spp. was below the limit of quantification in all samples. Of the eight samples containing poultrymeat, Salmonella spp. was detected in five of them (62.5%), indicating that poultry is a high-risk raw material for Salmonella contamination. Meanwhile, meat from domestic ungulates was identified as a high-risk source for Listeria monocytogenes, with that bacteria detected in 9 out of 20 (45%) of the samples containing this type of meat. The results indicate that hygienein the production of raw pet food is unsatisfactory in most cases, that such food poses a risk to animal health and can be an indirect source of infection for humans via animal excretions and contaminated surfaces.
Two cases of local skin reactions to intramuscular application of enrofloxacin in a reticulatedpython (Malayopython reticulatus) (6 years, 5.5 kg) and a Burmese python (Python bivitatus) (3 years, 25 kg) are presented. The reticulated python was treated for a swelling of the upper jaw, while the Burmese python had respiratory symptoms. The first python was treated with meloxicam for 7 days, but since the swelling did not go down, the local veterinarian consulted a reptile expert. Instead of the recommended marbofloxacin, the animal received an intramuscular injection of enrofloxacin, and swelling and a sterile abscess appeared at the injection site, with local pinkish skin discolouration. After marbofloxacin therapy was continued, the swelling disappeared. The white spotpatch at the site of the single application of enrofloxacin is still present after3 months. The Burmese python received enrofloxacin and bromhexine hydrochloride intramuscularly for 14 days. Sterile abscesses and skin discolouration occurred at 3-4 sites of enrofloxacin application. Initially, the scales around the site of enrofloxacin application became pale and matte, later appearing as though the scales had melted or fused. Even 5 years later, a slight spherical bulge with a hard-elastic consistency can be felt. The treatment was carried out in another local clinic.Intramuscular application of enrofloxacin in pythons can lead to the formation of a sterile abscess at the injection site and long-term discolouration of the skin above that site, although some prescriptions warn of possible skin discoloration, but only after subcutaneous administration of enrofloxacin.
Most agricultural crops are treated several times with different types of pesticides during cultivation and it is therefore very likely that pesticide residues remain on the treated agricultural crops. Pesticides are therefore a very important group of chemical compounds that need to be controlled, mainly because of their high toxicity and widespread use in the production of agriculturalproducts. The most commonly used herbicide is glyphosate. To ensure a high level of consumer protection, legal limits or maximum residue levels have been set in Regulation (EC) No. 396/2005. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) publishes anannual report that provides an overview of the official monitoring of pesticide residues in the European Union Member States, Iceland and Norway. This paper summarises the data from EFSA's annual reports from 2007 to 2022, referring to data related to the best-selling herbicide glyphosate.
Interpreting bovine hematology is essential for diagnosing, monitoring, and prognosing various diseases. One of the most commonly used diagnostic tool is the complete blood count (CBC), which helps identify a wide range of organ and systemic diseases. The purpose of this review article is to provide veterinarians, especially field veterinarians, with as much useful information as possible, about bovine hematological tests. Bovine complete blood count can be of great assistance in diagnosing, further testing and predicting the prognosis of bovine diseases. However, it should be noted that the diagnosis of bovine diseases based solely on a complete blood count is only occasionally possible. In most cases, a complete blood count in bovine serves as an important adjunctive tool in diagnosing diseases. In this paper, we will focus on the specificities of bovine erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
The reception office at the Croatian Veterinary Institute plays a crucial role in ensuring the accurate and efficient handling ofsamples and accompanying documentation, and serves as the first point of contact for veterinarians and inspectors regarding samples, or for clients who call by phone. This paper outlines the best practices for managing sample reception, emphasising the importance of proper documentation, the use of technology to streamline processes, and the implementation of quality control measures. Proper documentation is essential for maintaining sample traceability and integrity, which is critical for accurate testing and analysis. The use of technology, such as electronic documentation systems and barcode scanning, can significantly enhance the efficiency and accuracy of the sample reception process. Additionally, implementing quality control measures, including regular audits and staff training, ensures the reliability and consistency of the reception process. By adopting these best practices, theCroatian Veterinary Institute can improve its operational efficiency and reduce the risk of errors, thereby contributing to public health and safety.
Yeast infections, particularly those caused by species of the genera Malassezia and Candida, are important contributors to otitis and dermatitis in dogs. This study investigates the prevalence and antifungal resistance of various yeast-like fungi isolated from canine dermal lesions in Portugal. Between 2018 and 2023, samples from dogs with clinically suspected yeast infections were collected and analysed using the Vitek 2 Compact® (bioMérieux, Marcy-l'Étoile, France) and FUNGITEST™ 60780 kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, USA). A total of 24 fungal isolates were identified, including Malassezia pachydermatis and Candida albicans. Susceptibility testing revealed high sensitivity to antifungal agents such as fluconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, and miconazole across most species, with notable resistance observed in Rhodotorula mucilaginosa to multiple antifungals. Intermediate resistance levels were detected in Malassezia spp. to flucytosine and several other antifungals. These findings underscore the need for continuous monitoring and prudent antifungal use to prevent resistance development. The study also highlights the importance of revisiting treatment protocols for Malassezia infections in dogs, given the observed resistance patterns. Further research is recommended to explore the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying antifungal resistance and develop new therapeutic agents.
The past decade has witnessed active research in the field of feline veterinary oncology, focused on a deeper understanding of risk factors, key pathogenic mechanisms, prognostic markers, refinement of surgical techniques, exploration of new therapeutic targets, and neoplasia prevention. Despite certain advancements, the issue of verifying and predicting the biological behaviour of individual tumours remains unresolved. Among them is lymphoma, which often presents a chronic course (without athognomonic signs) and demonstrates significant variability in tissue involvement, explaining the considerable fluctuations in its recordedfrequency, ranging from 3.6 to 22%. The range of anatomical forms also varies significantly, with alimentary (up to 40%) and multicentric (up to 30%) lymphomas most commonly diagnosed. The probability of verifying numerous histopathological types (T-cell lymphoma, B-cell lymphoma) and their subtypes correlates with the anatomical form of lymphoma. A concerning trend is the dynamic increase in the registration of new and rare forms of lymphoma (primary lymphoma of the adrenal glands, pericardium, ocular globe, etc.), indicating the variability of pathogenetic mechanisms, likely due to enhanced genomic instability. In addition to well-established risk factors for lymphoma in cats, the adverse anthropogenic impact has become relevant. The initiation of lymphoma in cats due to tobacco smoke has been proven. The significance of age, breed, and gender predisposition as risk factors for lymphoma has been debated and largely depends on the region. The absence of vaccination against viraldiseases in cats increases the risk of lymphoma. The most significant risk factors for the development of lymphoma in cats are leukosis and immunodeficiency agents, although their etiological role has significantly decreased in recent years. Current research demonstrates the active involvement of chromosomal aberrations and chronic inflammation in lymphoma development. Kidney transplantation and immunosuppressive therapy increase the likelihood of lymphoma development in cats almost sevenfold.A risk factor requiring further study is genetic heredity, currently identified in Siamese, British, and Oriental shorthair cats.
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) is a non-inflammatory disorder characterised by extensive bony proliferation along the axial skeleton. This study evaluates the radiological features of DISH in the lumbar and lumbosacral vertebrae of dogs. Radiographic records from the University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine were analysed for dogs older than one year over a 12-month period. Thirteen cases of DISH were identified, predominantly in large breed dogs, with no cases observed in small breeds. Mixed-breed dogs, Labrador Retrievers, and Boxers were the most frequently affected breeds, and incidence was highest in dogs aged 7–10 years. The hallmark radiographic findings included flowing calcifications along the ventrolateral aspects of at least four contiguous vertebral bodies, with preservation of disc height. The most pronounced changes were observed between the L3 and L4 vertebrae. These findings highlight the importance of recognising DISH as a distinct entity in veterinary practice to avoid misclassification as severe spondylosis.
This paper explores the critical importance of accepting reviewer duties in the scientific community. The primary aim of this paper is to underscore the essential role that peer reviewers play in maintaining the integrity and quality of scholarly publications. By accepting reviewer duties, scientists and researchers contribute to the rigorous evaluation process that ensures the validity and impact of published research. The paper delves into the numerous benefits that reviewers gain from participating in the peer review process, such as staying updated with the latest research, opportunities for professional development, and enhancedreputation within the scientific community. Reviewers who engage actively in the peer review process can broaden their nowledge, refine their critical thinking skills, and establish themselves as experts in their respective fields. Furthermore, this paper highlights the responsibilities that come with being a reviewer, such as providing constructive feedback, maintaining confidentiality, and avoiding conflicts of interest. By fulfilling these responsibilities, reviewers contribute significantly to the advancement of their field, uphold the standards of scientific research, and foster an environment of intellectual rigor and integrity. The paper emphasizes the need for active participation in the peer review process to ensure the continuous improvement and credibility of scientific research. It calls upon researchers to recognize the importance of their role as reviewers and to actively engage in the process to support the growth and development of their scientific community. Through diligent and ethical reviewing practices, reviewers play a pivotal role in shaping the future of scientific knowledge and innovation.
Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most common malignant skin tumours in dogs, significantly impacting canine health.Despite its prevalence, the study of biomarkers in canine SCC is still limited compared to human oncology. Biomarkers can providevaluable insights into the biological behaviour of tumours, aiding in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment strategies. This reviewaims to consolidate the current knowledge on biomarkers in canine cutaneous SCC, highlighting parallels with human studiesto enhance the understanding and potential clinical applications in veterinary oncology. Several key biomarkers have been identified in canine SCC, including cyclooxygenases (COX-2), intermediate filaments (vimentin), angiogenic factors (VEGF), and apoptosis-related proteins (survivin). Other biomarkers such as periostin, heat shock proteins, SOX9, E-cadherin, cytokeratins, galectins, and kallikreins have also been explored, providing insights into the pathophysiology and potential therapeutic targets for canine SCC. The expression patterns of these biomarkers often parallel those observed in human SCC, underscoring their relevance in both veterinary and comparative oncology. Identifying and characterising biomarkers in canine cutaneous SCC is crucial for advancing veterinary oncology. Continued research in this area could lead to improved diagnostic tools and targeted therapies, ultimately enhancing the management of SCC in dogs.
This paper outlines the results of researching the incidence of mastitis in small ruminants in the Republic of Croatia over a six-year period (2017 to 2022). During this period, microbiological testing was performed on 801 samples of udder secretions from small ruminants in 13 counties and the city of Zagreb, with 178 samples (22.2%) testing positive for mastitis pathogens. Of the total 609 udder secretion samples from goats, mastitis agents were isolated from 150 samples (24.6%), while the 192 udder secretion samples from sheep revealed 28 (14.6%) contained mastitis agents. The highest prevalence of mastitis pathogens in goat udder secretions was found in 2018 (31.8%), and in sheep in 2020 (32.9%). Microbiological testing identified 16 species and genera of bacteria. The most common species were Staphylococcus aureus, isolated from 96 (53.9%) samples, Staphylococcusspp. (46 samples; 25.8%), Streptococcus spp. (7; 3.9%), Klebsiella spp. and Corynebacterium spp. (each 5; 2.8%), Escherichia coli (4; 2.2%), Streptococcus uberis and Proteus spp. (each 3; 1.7%), and Pseudomonas spp. (2; 1.1%). Other species and genera, such as Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Pasteurella spp., Mannheimia haemolytica, Enterococcus spp., Enterobacter and Serratia spp. were isolated sporadically, each from one sample. The isolated bacterial cultures were tested for sensitivity to antimicrobials using the disc-diffusion method to amoxicillin with clavulanic acid, ampicillin, cefaperazone, enrofloxacin, kanamycin, cloxacillin, lincomycin, neomycin, novobiocin, penicillin, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole withtrimethoprim, and tetracycline. Sensitivity of the isolated agents to the antimicrobials was most pronounced towards cefoperazone and enrofloxacin, regardless of the species or genera of the isolated mastitis agent. The odds of isolating a mastitis agent from goat udder secretions was 1.61 times higher than for sheep (P<0.05). This study confirmed that the occurrenceof mastitis in small ruminants in Croatia is comparable to incidences reported in other Mediterranean countries.
The resumption of postpartum ovarian ac-tivity (RPOA) is influenced by the cow’s meta-bolic profile, though the relationship betweenRPOA and the metabolic profile of dairy cowsat high altitude in the Andean Region of Ecua-dor is still unclear. The goal of this study was todetermine the relationship between RPOA andthe metabolic profile of Holstein cows at highaltitude in the Andean Region of Ecuador. Thir-ty cows were selected and their RPOA and met-abolic profile at 30 days postpartum were evalu-ated. According to the RPOA, the metabolic in-dicators were compared using the t-Student testfor independent samples. A simple linear cor-relation was run between the main indicatorsof the RPOA and the metabolic parameters. Anobservational analytical study was performedto establish the association between RPOA andmetabolic profile. Holstein caws showing anearly RPOA had lower β-Hydroxybutyrate andblood urea nitrogen (P < 0.05), and higher phos-phate, copper, and zinc concentrations (P < 0.05)concentrations in blood serum as compared toHolstein cows with late RPOA. Increased bloodβ-hydroxybutyrate and low phosphate, copperand zinc were risk factors (P < 0.05) for late post-partum RPOA. In addition, the follow param-eters were correlated (P < 0.05): appearance ofthe dominant follicle and zinc levels, follicle di-ameter and copper, occurrence of ovulation andblood β-hydroxybutyrate level, the occurrenceof ovulation and phosphate , luteal activity andcholesterol, corpus luteum volume and cop-per, blood serum progesterone and cholester-ol, and blood serum progesterone and copperlevels. There was a strong correlation (P < 0.01)between the occurrence of ovulation and cop-per levels, luteal activity and blood β-hydrox-ybutyrate levels, and copper and zinc levels.These findings show that RPOA was related tothe metabolic profile at 30 days postpartum, es-pecially with protein excesses and energy, andphosphate, copper and zinc deficiencies.
This study investigated the relationship between vaginal cytological examination and progesterone levels (P4) during a 12.5-month period of cycle monitoring in 16 domestic bitches subjected to oestrus induction treatments. By analysing the correlations between P4 rates and cellular parameters (specifically eosinophilia and basophilia percentage), the study aimed to establish a reliable cellular parameter that can serve as an indicator of low progesterone thresholds. Preliminary monitoring was conducted through bi-weekly visits. At each visit, all animals systematically underwent a vaginal smear stained with the Harris-Schorr trichrome method. For P4 assess-ment, plasma samples were analysed using a radioimmunoassay method. Cycle control during and after oestrus induction was accompanied by clinical, cytological and hormonal monitoring until the gestational state was confirmed. Chi-square test was applied to study the correlation in a population consisting of 282 smear slides corresponding to the corre- sponding P4 values. Data showed that at the beginning of proestrus, P4 levels were highly significantly correlated with the percentages of basophilic and eosinophilic cells. Among the cytological criteria evaluated for both cellular percentages, having more than 40% basophilic cells on the vaginal smear proved to be the most reliable with a zero margin of error. Its application indicated that when the percentage of basophilic cells is strictly greater than 40%, P4 values are below 2 ng/mL, and once the percentage of basophilia falls below 40%, the P4 assays become valuable. Thus, in the context of cycle monitoring, this cellular indicator could be particularly useful in avoiding costly and unnecessary progesterone measurements and reducing their frequency at the beginning of proestrus.
The study investigated the biochemical parameters of blood in comparison to histological findings in dogs with pancreatitis. Tissue samples were collected from the left and right lobes and the body of the pancreas during autopsy, followed by histological examination to assess the degree of inflammation, fibrosis, and necrotic changes. The severity of microstructural damage was classified into three grades based on the progression of fibrotic changes: mild, moderate and severe (characterised by dense pancreatic fibrosis). Histological changes in the pancreas in cases of chronic pancreatitis were compared to those in healthy dog pancreatic tissue obtained post-mortem from animals that died in traffic accidents. For each animal, the histological results were compared with the biochemical parameters of blood serum, measured prior to death during the diagnostic and treatment stages. In cases of mild microstructural changes, connective tissue proliferation occurred alongside minor atrophy of the exocrine component, with the structure of Langerhans-Sobolev islets preserved. Moder- ate damage involved more pronounced separation of exocrine parenchyma by fibrous tissue. Severe damage was characterised by acinar cell involvement, including vacuolar degeneration and atrophy. Loose fibrosis was typical for mild and moderate damage, while dense fibrosis was indicative of severe microstructural changes. Inflammation in the pancreas was not diffuse but was instead localised. The study established that the development of fibrosis plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis. Blood biochemical parameters were correlated with the severity of pathological microstructural changes. Specifically, the activity of alkaline phosphatase increased by 1.3 times. In severe cases, alanine aminotransferase activity showed a significant increase compared to moderate and mild forms. Elevated levels of connective tissue metabolites in blood serum were identified as informative diagnostic markers for chronic pancreatitis of varying degrees of microstructural damage. These markers provide valuable insight into the diagnosis and progression of the disease.
Porcine lymphotropic herpesviruses 1, 2 and 3 (PLHV-1, PLHV-2 and PLHV-3) are DNA viruses belonging to the genus Macavirus and the subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae within the family Herpesviridae. PLHV was detected in domestic pigs in Germany in 1999, with subsequent outbreaks in Spain, Brazil, Italy and Ireland, which was the trigger for our preliminary study to investigate its occurrence in Croatian pig herds. According to previous studies, natural infections with PLHV in domestic pigs do not cause clinical signs of disease. However, PLHV-1 has been found to cause lymphoproliferative disorders in domestic pigs after bone marrow transplantation that are similar to those described in humans infected with human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4), which originates from individuals after organ transplantation. HHV-4 is the causative agent of mononucleosis and is the first virus described to have oncogenic potential. HHV-8 causes Kaposi’s sarcoma and contributes to the development of lymphoproliferative disorders in humans, such asprimary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman’s disease. In this study, blood and spleen samples from domestic pigs were analysed using real-time polymerase chain reaction, which has been shown to be an excellent method for the detection of PLH viruses as it is rapid, highly specific and sensitive. The presence of all three PLHV strains in domestic pigs in Croatia was confirmed for the first time with a prevalence of 55.8% regardless of breeding conditions. The most dominant strain was PLHV-1 and the most frequent co-infection was PLHV-1 with PLHV-3. The virus was detected in 10 Croatian counties, with the highest prevalence found in Vukovar-Srijem County. Although herpesviruses are generally species-specific, the close genetic relationship of PLHV with HHV-4 and HHV-8 may indicate a possible zoonotic potential, particularly in immunocompromised human recipients following xenotransplantation. Further investigation of PLHV will contribute to a better understanding of its importance in maintaining the health of pigs and will include genotyping to identify origin of the viruses and potential public health risks.
Folate is essential for the proper development of the brain. The gene CCND1 is responsible for the synthesis of the cyclin D1protein, which facilitates the differentiation and proliferation of neurons. Nerve growth factor (NGF) is critical for the survival and maturation of neurons. MicroRNAs are involved in regulating various phases of neurogenesis, including the proliferation of neural stem cells and differentiation of neurons. Given the important role of folic acid (FA) inthe regulation of gene expression, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of in ovo injection of FA on expression levels of gga-mir-let-7k-5p, CCND1, and NGF in the cerebral cortex of chicken embryos. This study involved a total of 120 hatching eggs.Of these, 40 eggs were administered FA injections into the amniotic fluid at a dosage of 150µg per egg, another 40 eggs received Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) injections (Sham)on embryonic day 11, while the remaining 40 eggs served as controls without any injections. Cortical tissues were subsequently collected on embryonic day 19, and Real-timePCR was employed to analyse the expression of mir-let-7k-5p, CCND1, and NGF. The results revealed that the expression levels of gga-mir-let-7k-5p in the FA-treated, Sham, and control groups were 0.46±0.09, 0.73±0.18,and 0.76±0.17-fold change, respectively. Additionally, the expression levels of CCND1were recorded at 1.77±0.38, 1.18±0.25, and1.11±0.28-fold change, respectively, whileNGF levels exhibited similar patterns at1.92±0.50, 1.12±0.25, and 1.04±0.21-fold change, respectively (P<0.05). Statistical analysis indicated a significant increase in the expression of CCND1 and NGF, along side a reduction in gga-mir-let-7k-5p expression in cortices treated with FA compared to the control. This suggests that the in ovo administration of FA enhances the expression of CCND1 and NGF, while decreasing gga-mir-let-7k-5p expression in the developing cerebral cortex of chicks. Enhancing our understanding of how folate impacts the activation of gene sand microRNAs related to the development of the cerebral cortex, and its potential connection to neural tube defects, will improve our knowledge of brain development, and could result in new treatment approaches to further reduce the occurrence of these abnormalities.
The ophthalmology examination is crucial for the treatment of certain systemic diseases. The eye is an anatomical extension of the brain, and many similarities can be found between them. Multidisciplinary research of the brain or the eye will cross-fertilise each other, especially in the context of neurodegenerative diseases. As an extension of the telencephalon, the optic nerve is surrounded by the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid, just like the brain. Numerous studies and hypotheses have focused on the movement of cerebrospinal fluid in this region, particularly the influence of pressure on this area and the translaminar pressure gradient that develops as a result of this pressure. In the 1970s, Volkov proposed the theory that glaucoma is a two-pressure disease, which was supported by studies on astronauts, who often exhibit visual disturbances with swelling of the eye disc. Understanding the balance between intraocular pressure, cerebrospinal fluid pressure, and systemic blood pressure is key to better management of diseases such as glaucoma and intracranial hypertension. The aim of this article was to re-evaluate the current state of knowledge in order to improve the treatment of pathological conditions resulting from disturbances in aqueous humour and cerebrospinal fluid flow.
