This study explores the seasonal availability of bee flora at Coronation Garden, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, during 2015-2016. A field survey documented flowering plant species visited by bees, confirming their role as bee flora through visual observations. Identified species were categorized into major, medium, and minor groups based on the nectar and pollen they provided. A total of 197 plant species were identified as bee flora, including horticultural, ornamental, wild, and agricultural species. The spring season of 2016 exhibited the highest abundance of blooming plants, making it the most favourable period for bees. The study emphasizes the importance of seasonal variation in bee flora availability, providing valuable insights for beekeeping practices.
Ecotourism in Nepal emerged with a dual focus on conservation and socio-economic development. While its implementation across various regions has brought notable benefits, including improved livelihoods for stakeholders and increased economic opportunities, it also presents environmental and management challenges. This study evaluated the ecological and economic impacts of tourism exploring its necessity for sustainability. By assessing the perspectives of stakeholders, tourists, and local residents, it revealed that although tourism contributes significantly to local development, it also poses serious environmental challenges. These include increased solid waste, the spread of Invasive Alien Plant Species (IAPS), and reduced wildlife sightings. The findings highlight the need for improved sustainable management strategies to balance tourism growth with environmental preservation. This research serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, stakeholders, and communities to adopt practices that support both conservation and responsible tourism development.
Nile Tilapia is a versatile fish renowned for its rapid growth and occurs in a wide variety of freshwater habitats. The trial was done to evaluate the optimum percentage of C:N ratio in biofloc system. A trial was conducted at IAAS, Paklihawa Campus, Bhairahawa, Nepal from 1st March, 2024 to 28st July, 2024 upto 150 days. Altogether 15 circular polytank (500 liter) each were used with stocking density of 40 fish 0.4 m-3 with continuous aeration. Completely Randomized Design (CRD) was set up with 5 treatments, each replicated thrice. The treatments were: (i) T1-without floc (Control) (ii) T2-with floc (C:N-10:1) (iii) T3-with floc (C:N-15:1) (iv) T4-with floc (C:N-20:1) and (v) T5-with floc (C:N-25:1). Molasses was taken as a carbon source. An intitial average weight of mono-sex tilapia fry (4.9±0.8 g) was stocked and 25% CP based pellet feed was given twice daily at 3% of body weight in all the treatments. At initial stage, there was no significant different in Temperature, pH, Ammonia, Nitrite and TSS at p <0.05 in all the treatments. But, there was significance different in Dissolved Oxygen, Floc level and TDS at p <0.05. Similarly, there was no significance different among the treatments in Initial Mean Weight (IMW), Total Initial Weight (TIW) and Initial Number (IN). But there was significantly different among the treatments in final mean weight, final harvest number, final harvest weight, DWG, GFY, NFY, and AFCR among the treatments. The highest final mean weight was found in T5 (58.8±7.6g) and the lowest final mean weight was found in T1 (13.0±0.4g). Result showed final harvest number was found highest in T5 (35.3±1.7) and the lowest in T1 (23.3±0.9). Similarly, the highest final harvest weight was found in T5 (2104.8±68.1g/tank) whereas the lowest final harvest weight was found in T1 (304.4±5.0 g/tank). There was no significantly different among the treatments in the mean value of abundance of bacteria, rotifers and copepda at p <0.05. But there was significantly different among the treatments in the mean value of Cladocera and Protozoa at p <0.05. The study suggests that T5 is found the best option for the growth performance of Nile tilapia in biofloc system.
The role of alien invasive plants on the interaction between native plants and soil has been a critical concern for understanding invasion mechanism and response of native plants towards invasion. This study aims to analyze the effect of invaded soils by an invasive Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob.) under sterilized and unsterilized conditions on growth performance of seedlings of a valuable native Sal tree (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.). For the analysis, seedlings of S. robusta were grown in pots and growth parameters were measured. Results showed that the C. odorata invaded soil reduces the root biomass, leaf length and leaf breadth of S. robusta seedlings. Sterilization of the invaded increased root and shoot and leaf size of the seedlings. In conclusion, soil sterilization can promote early-stage growth for S. robusta seedlings, adjusting with altering the shape and size of leaves in response to invasion. This suggests that soil microbes play an important role in negatively impacting native plants with invasion of C. odorata.
Chiuri (Diploknema butyracea), a culturally and economically significant tree in the Nepal Himalayas, plays a vital role as a cultural keystone species. This study examined its regeneration across 90 plots along three elevational gradients: lower (500-800 m), middle (800-1100 m), and upper (1100-1400 m) in western, central, and eastern Nepal. The highest seedling densities occurred in the Upper Central (16 seedlings/ha) and Upper Western (14 seedlings/ha) regions. Regeneration was affected by factors such as disturbance, shade intolerance, thick litter layers, short seed viability, and grazing. Notably, areas with low disturbance and strong traditional conservation practices, especially among the Chepang community, showed better regeneration outcomes. The findings highlight the value of indigenous knowledge in promoting forest health. To ensure the long-term survival of Chiuri, the study recommends establishing seed orchards, promoting public awareness, and launching large-scale plantations. These efforts would enhance both the ecological sustainability and cultural significance of this important Himalayan species.
Present study reveals the existence of 61 species of indigenous freshwater ornamental fish under 38 genera, 24 families of 8 Orders. A thorough survey has been conducted from April 2018 to December 2022 on the subject under study and achieved the aforesaid results. Main objectives of the current investigation are to collect, identify and narrate conservation strategies for indigenous freshwater ornamental fish species of undivided Paschim Medinipur. Present contribution enlisted the up to date the freshwater ornamental fish faunal diversity of the study area. The work will certainly be helpful to the fishery managers, researchers and aquaculturists for their future planning.
This study documents new inclusions to the ichthyofauna of Nepal, focusing on four fish species: Cirrhinus cirrhosus, Labeo boggut, Piaractus brachypomus, and Oreochromis aureus. Ichthyological surveys were conducted in the Kankai River from August 2023 to July 2024, utilizing a combination of cast nets, gill nets, and local fishing tools. Specimens were subjected to detailed morphometric and meristic analyses, and their conservation statuses were reviewed. The findings underscore the importance of ongoing field investigations and conservation efforts to protect Nepal's aquatic biodiversity, particularly in the face of increasing non-native fish species introductions.
Ostrich (Struthiocamelus, Linnaeus, 1758) farming is an emerging enterprise in Nepal. Only one breeding farm was started in Nepal in 2008. The present study was conducted to examine the impact of supplementary diet on the weight gain of Ostrich. Formulation and preparation of feeds was done by direct involvement in the farm. A total eight unsexed Ostrich chicks were selected in the present study by feeding two types of diet. Farm feed (normal diet) and supplementary diet were given to the Ostrich chicks for about four months in 2018 to measure the weight gain. In this study,both feeds showed little weight gain, the mean weight gain of first 15 days of study on normal diets was 7.6±0.2309 kg and 10.9±0.0186 kg on supplementary diets and it was significantly greater (P<0.0001)compared to the following weeks which showed less fluctuation and more stability through the study. Ostrich chicks reached a final weight of 35.4 ± 0.163 kg on normal diets and 44.35 ± 0.1914 kg on supplementary diets after four months, which was significantly greater (P <0.0001). The growth rate of ostriches fed a supplementary diet, was significantly higher and more rapid compared to those receiving the farm diet during the same age period. These findings suggest the inclusion of supplementary feed which positively influences growth performance in Ostrich.
In recent years, human-leopard conflict has become a significant issue in the Gulmi district. This study aims to explore the current situation of such conflicts by conducting field visits from August 2019 to January 2020 and documenting data from the past five years through questionnaires. A total of 743 livestock were reported as victims of leopard attacks. There was a significant positive correlation between the frequency of livestock incidents and the number of losses (r = 0.907, p = 0.574 at a significance level of 0.05). The gender of the livestock also showed a positive correlation with incident frequency (r = 0.972). Most incidents involved free-grazing livestock, with the highest occurrence in August (11.27%). A strong relationship was found between people's responses to leopard activities and the distance of their residence from the forest (χ² = 39.97, df = 6, p < 0.05). Additionally, there was a significant association between the level of education and people's responses to leopard behavior (χ² = 13.69, df = 9, p < 0.05). The most conflicting areas were marginal zones between forests and private farmlands, with most encounters occurring at night. Affected individuals expressed dissatisfaction with the government's compensation scheme. To mitigate human-leopard conflicts, it is recommended that livestock be reared in controlled environments, and that forest entry by people be limited to low-risk times.
This study shows the oxygen uptake rates of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), in relation to body weight during two distinct seasonal temperature conditions: winter (20±1°C) and summer (30±1°C). The relationship between oxygen consumption (mlo2/hr) and body weight was analyzed using the equation y=a.Wb, where (a) is the intercept and (b) is the regression coefficient. In winter, the regression coefficient (b) was 0.7038, with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.9972 (p<0.01), and the antilog of the intercept (a) was 0.375. Oxygen uptake rates varied inversely with weight, with values of 0.2898 (mlO2/g/hr), 0.1981(mlO2/g/hr), 0.1570 (mlO2/g/hr) for 2g, 9g, and 17g, respectively. During summer, the regression coefficient (b) increased to 0.8028, with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.9937 (p<0.01) and the antilog of the intercept was 0.551. Oxygen uptake rates similarly decreased with weight, ranging from 0.5542 (mlO2/g/hr), 0.3374 (mlO2/g/hr), and 0.3230 (mlO2/g/hr) for 2g, 10g and 19g fish, respectively.
Gastrointestinal (GI) parasites pose a crucial health risk to non-human primates (NHPs), particularly in areas with frequent human-wildlife interaction. This study assessed the prevalence and diversity of GI parasites in free-ranging Macaca mulatta (Rhesus macaque) and Semnopithecus hector (Hanuman langur) in Dharan, eastern Nepal, in the year 2024. The collected fecal samples (n=89) were examined using direct wet mount and flotation techniques. Overall, the parasitic prevalence (74.15%), with helminths (65.15%), was found to be more than protozoans (33.70%). Notably, Trichuris sp. was the most prevalent parasite (48.63%). In addition, M. mulatta showed higher parasite diversity (Shannon H'=1.96) and protozoan prevalence (43.63%) compared to S. hector (H'=1.72; 17.64%), likely due to their synanthropic behavior. Moreover, the co-infections were found to be more frequent, particularly in macaques. These results highlight the zoonotic risks associated with gastrointestinal parasites and underscore the role of human activities, such as improper waste disposal and habitat disturbance, in facilitating parasite transmission. This calls for targeted habitat management strategies, improved waste management practices, and public health interventions to reduce disease risks in urban areas where human and primate populations coexist.
The coexistence between humans and wildlife began since their origin sharing foods and habitats. Urban areas are human-dominated, non-natural, and non-protected environments where wildlife struggles to survive. Despite life-threatening issues persisted in these places, five-striped palm squirrel (Funambulus pennantii Robert Charles Wroughton) inhabit in dense human dwellings. Therefore, we aimed to study nine types of behaviors (i.e. adaptive, aggressive, avoidance, cognitive, feeding, grooming, reproductive, social and aestivation) in Shahid Gangalal Heart Centre (SGHC), HAMS Hospital and their surroundings at Kathmandu by visual observation (VO) and hearing sound calls (HSC). During study, visits were made twice in each site in all seasons (i.e. winter, spring, summer, and autumn), and documented every sign or signal that offers value for survival. Food availability rather than food variety, temperature and precipitation was the major determinant factor for occurrence in the habitat. Although agnostic behavior shaped their hierarchies within the species, avoidance and adaptation were the key behaviors to keep them survive in human dominated expanses. The most preferred nutrient was the leaf buds (27.9%, n=12) and insects as the least (4.7%, n=2). Although tree branches and trunks were the most preferred substrates (51.8%, n=29) for roosting and safety, their diurnal activities and vocalization drew human attention and provoked nearby stray dogs creating risks. Conclusively, squirrels were found to co-exist under prominent conflicts with humans and dogs in shared territories. So, further study is recommended to understand effects of pollution in reproduction and transmission of zoonotic diseases.
Lakes in the eastern Nepal enriched with a combination of mystical biodiversity and the essence of cultural ecosystem services are among the major ecotourism destinations. Wetland based ecotourism approach aims at conserving the environment and uplifting the socio-economic and cultural conditions through tourism development. The study aimed to list out the macrophytes of the lakes and to assess the ecotourism potentialities in some lakes (Taltalaiya, Raja-Rani, Chulachuli and Maipokhari) of eastern Nepal. Macrophytes were studied by quadrat method. Regarding the data for the components of ecotourism, primary data were collected by key informant survey and focus group discussion to know the visitor’s perception on the current ecotourism status of these lakes. Secondary sources of data collection included published and unpublished literature. Collected data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The rich macrophyte diversity of these lakes comprising 56 species of angiosperms and 4 species of aquatic pteridophytes reflects a natural and undisturbed habitat with great ecotourism potentials. However, Chulachuli lake is not familiar from ecotourism point of view till date. Based on numerous ecotourism activities, the study reveals that relaxation ranks top in Taltalaiya lake, picnic/outing in Raja-Rani lake, and religious activity in Maipokhari lake. Ecotourism activities integrated with public involvement could serve as a backbone for generating and improving the wetland revenue to sustain the conservation of wetland biodiversity.
The objective of this study was to elucidate the cellular architecture of the pancreas in Clupisoma garua, a carnivorous river catfish, using light microscopy techniques. The pancreas was diffused in nature, structurally organized into two main components: exocrine serous acini, which produce digestive enzymes and the endocrine islets of Langerhans, which secrete peptide hormones. The pancreatic islets were scattered throughout the organ, each bounded by a thick connective tissue capsule and surrounded by blood capillaries, demonstrating the rich vascularity of the islets. The alpha, beta and delta cells of the islets were identified by their distinct architecture, positions and varying staining intensities. Zymogenic granules of the exocrine acinar cells exhibited an intense tryptophan reaction, reflecting the precursor of numerous pancreatic enzymes related to the fish's feeding habits. The pancreas played a dual physiological role, functioning both as an exocrine organ, with acinar cells responsible for digestion and as an endocrine organ, with islet tissues regulating glucose homeostasis and other vital physiological processes.
The present paper aims to describe the length-weight (LW) relationship of the hill stream fish Pseudecheneis sulcata. Fish of various lengths and weights were collected from the Tamor River in Eastern Nepal from December 1 to 15, 2024. A total of 42 fish specimens were stored in a freezer and then transported to the Ichthyological Laboratory at the Department of Zoology, Degree Campus, Biratnagar. The measurements of the fish samples were conducted with maximum accuracy. The data obtained from the measurements were analyzed using the formula. The estimated slope value (b) for the total length and weight in the length-weight relationship is 3.410, indicating positive allometric growth. This suggests that under optimal conditions for growth, as the length increases, there is a proportionately greater increase in weight.
A study was conducted to analyze the growth performance of mixed-sex Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) with soyabean-enriched feed and moringa-enriched feed. The experiment was conducted for 75 days in a cemented tank (3 m x 2 m x 1 m) in a completely randomized design with three treatments in triplicate. The treatments include: T1 - Control (Homemade feed), T2 - homemade feed + 5% soybean meal, and T3 - homemade feed + 5% Moringa leaf powder. Nile tilapia fish were added to each tank at a rate of 5 fish/m2, with an average stocking weight of 7.7±0.3 g/fish. The fish were fed with designated feed at a rate of 3% of their body weight during the culture period. Different water quality parameters, such as water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH, were within the optimum range for fish culture. The average final weight was significantly higher (p<0.05) in T2 (27.60±0.10) and T3 (27.40±0.06) compared to T1 (26.01±0.10). Although there was no significant difference in survival rate among treatments (p > 0.05), the daily weight gain (DWG) was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in T2 (0.266 ± 0.004 g/day) and T3 (0.262 ± 0.02 g/day) compared to T1 (0.245 ± 0.003 g/day). The apparent feed conversion ratio (AFCR) was lowest in T3 (1.94 ± 0.02), indicating better feed utilization efficiency. In contrast, the feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was lowest in T1 (0.48 ± 0.012), meaning only 48% of the feed was converted into fish biomass. Thus, it can be concluded that the inclusion of plant-based ingredients such as soybean meal and moringa leaf powder in fish diets can significantly enhance growth performance and feed efficiency. Therefore, plant-based diets may serve as sustainable and effective alternatives to animal-based feeds in aquaculture.
This study comprehensively examined Lepidoptera diversity in the semi-urban agricultural landscapes of Lumbini, Nepal, documenting 30 moth species from six families and 39 butterfly species from five families over 14 days. Field methods included moth traps with 50 Watts LED lights inside a box with egg cartons for moth trapping and butterfly transect surveys across various habitats—grasslands, shrublands, and agricultural areas for recording butterfly species. The Erebidae family dominated moth populations, while Nymphalidae led butterfly diversity, showing resilience in disturbed habitats influenced by environmental factors such as weather patterns, lunar phases, and habitat characteristics. Statistical analyses using Simpson's Diversity Index, Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index, Pielou’s Evenness Index, and Margalef’s Richness Index revealed that shrubland and agricultural habitats supported the highest species richness and evenness, while grasslands hosted fewer species. The study highlighted the importance of agricultural and shrubland ecosystems for biodiversity, emphasizing ongoing monitoring to understand how Lepidoptera populations respond to environmental changes, offering essential insights for future conservation efforts. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.
Species composition, diversity, and carbon sock of forests are all critical factors that affect the ability of forests to provide various important ecosystem services. However, there is a notable dearth of research regarding these factors in the community forests of Udaypur district. Therefore, this research was undertaken to assess species composition, and biodiversity and quantify the carbon stock potential of the Sringar community forest (CF) of the Udaypur district of Eastern Nepal. A total of 57 circular plots of 500m2 were inventoried using a systematic random sampling method with 0.5 % sampling intensity. In the CF, 17 tree species from 15 genera and 11 families were identified. The dominant tree species, Shorea robusta observed with a maximum importance value index (IVI) (176.15). According to our study, the total biomass and carbon stock in Sringar CF were 276.98 ton ha-1 and 138.18 ton ha-1, respectively. Accurate estimation of soil carbon stocks is crucial for long-term forest management and climate change mitigation, and the integration of advanced monitoring techniques and predictive models to enhance accuracy and account for future climate projections is needed.
Small Indigenous Fish Species (SIS) on the smaller side play a crucial role in aquatic ecosystems, offering valuable nutrients such as Omega-3 fatty acids, Vitamin A, and critical elements like Calcium, Phosphorus, and Iron that sustain human life. Unfortunately, their habitats are being destroyed by climate change and human activities, which possess a significant threat to SIS. In Koshi Province , Nepal, a two-year survey of SIS recorded 114 species belonging to 8 orders and 25 families.This paper focuses on the diversity, ecosystem services, economic importance,s status and aesthetic values of SIS.
Wetlands are gaining much attention recently as they are threatened by multiple stressors; however, detailed ecological and socio-economic studies on these wetlands are limited. In this study, we present an inventory and assess ecosystem services, and conservation status of the wetlands of Morang district in Eastern Nepal. We used the remote sensing data - Google Earth Imagery and official topographic maps – for preparation of inventory and conducted a rapid field survey using a questionnaire, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Provisional and cultural services were analyzed based on field observations and the questionnaire survey. Twenty-four wetlands of 29.4 ha area, ranging from 0.017 to 7.5 ha were recorded. The Sunbarsi wetland is located in the lowest (87 m) and the Chuli Pokhari in the highest (677 m) elevation. Rajarani wetland of Letang (7.5 ha) is the largest wetland in the district. Ten wetlands have high religious value. Wetlands in Morang district are also productive ecosystems providing different types of ecosystem services. They contribute in local economy providing job and business opportunities to locals. Bhulkey wetland of Pathari-1 provides drinking water to 1,938 families. Further, these wetlands are used for irrigation. The wetlands are also providing services to livestock farming, fishing, boating, commercial activities (hotels and shops), and tourism. Cultural, recreational and ecotourism activities in the wetlands are generating revenue locally.
