Armed conflicts have a disproportionate impact on civilian populations, with children being among the most vulnerable. Their physical immaturity, dependence on adults, and limited capacity for self-protection expose them to heightened risks of violence, exploitation, displacement and deprivation of their fundamental rights. This study examines the legal status of children as vulnerable persons in armed conflict, with specific focus on the Anglophone conflict in Cameroon. It adopts a qualitative research methodology and employs the doctrinal method, relying on content analysis of both primary and secondary sources of data. The study is underpinned by Martha Fineman’s Vulnerability theory and the Human Rights-Based Approach, which emphasise the responsibility of the State to provide enhanced protection for inherently vulnerable groups. The study finds that the Anglophone conflict has significantly intensified violations of children’s rights to health, education and overall development, while also exposing them to various forms of exploitation. Although international human rights law and international humanitarian law provide a comprehensive legal framework for the protection of children in armed conflicts, their effectiveness is undermined by weak enforcement, insecurity and socio-economic challenges. The study concludes that protecting children in armed conflicts must remain a central legal and policy priority. It therefore recommends the implementation of stronger enforcement mechanisms, targeted training programs and effective reintegration and psychosocial support systems.
This article examines electoral governance in Africa through a comparative analysis of Cameroon and Ghana, with a particular focus on the challenges, reform trajectories, and democratic outcomes associated with electoral processes. Grounded in the normative framework of international and regional human rights law, the study interrogates the extent to which electoral systems in both countries comply with standards set out in instruments such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. Adopting a qualitative, doctrinal, and comparative research methodology, the study analyzes constitutional provisions, electoral laws, institutional practices, and scholarly literature to assess the effectiveness of electoral governance frameworks. The analysis is further informed by Rule of Law Theory and Utilitarian Theory, which together provide a dual lens for evaluating both the legality and societal impact of electoral processes. The findings reveal significant disparities between the two countries. Ghana demonstrates relatively stronger electoral governance, characterized by institutional independence, credible reforms, and peaceful transfers of power, thereby contributing to democratic consolidation. In contrast, Cameroon’s electoral system is constrained by limited institutional autonomy, electoral irregularities, and weak implementation of reforms, resulting in diminished public trust and contested democratic outcomes. The study further finds that while both states have ratified key international and regional instruments, compliance remains uneven, particularly in terms of practical enforcement. The article concludes that effective electoral governance requires more than formal legal frameworks; it demands genuine institutional independence, political will, and alignment with human rights standards. It recommends comprehensive reforms aimed at strengthening electoral institutions, enhancing transparency, and promoting inclusive political participation. The study contributes to scholarship by integrating legal-normative and outcome-based analyses to provide a more holistic understanding of electoral governance and democratic legitimacy in Africa.
Over the past few years, Chinese live commerce has undergone a paradigm shift from being traffic-dividend-driven to fine-grained operations-driven. This shift has consolidated transferable core capabilities, including dual-wheel-driven content scenarios and shelf scenarios, data-driven product selection decisions, and flexible supply chain responsiveness. The US TikTok e-commerce market is currently in a phase of rapid growth. The beauty and fashion category, characterized by strong visual expressiveness, obvious impulsive purchasing attributes, and large profit margins, has become a key strategic sector for Chinese cross-border sellers to lay out. Taking the cross-border practice of New Start Plus Agency as a sample, this paper analyzes the differences between Chinese and US live commerce across traffic ecosystems, user behaviors, and conversion logistics. It proposes growth paths for the beauty and fashion category spanning product selection adaptation, content localization, and supply chain responsiveness. Furthermore, it discusses the scale expansion planning and organizational support strategies for growing from 2 to 6 live studios, providing strategic references for the globalization of Chinese cross-border live commerce.
The rise of AI-based modes of production has sparked debates over whether “machines create value,” thereby casting doubt upon the contemporary explanatory power of Marx’s labor theory of value. By elucidating the core principles of Marx’s labor theory of value and distinguishing key categories such as use value and value, living labor and objectified labor, this paper demonstrates that viewpoints such as “machines create value” are fundamentally rooted in theoretical confusion. The study finds that the current era of artificial intelligence is still far from realizing a “digital utopia”; behind automated production there remains a new form of complex labor, and the ultimate source of surplus value continues to be living labor. On this basis, the paper further reveals the new developmental landscape of the labor theory of value in the age of AI, namely the exponential expansion of use values and the profound restructuring of value production. Marx’s labor theory of value has not become obsolete; rather, the methodological insights embedded within it remain capable of analyzing contemporary social realities.
Armed conflicts disproportionately affect women, exposing them to heightened risks of sexual and gender-based violence, displacement, economic marginalization, and exclusion from peace processes. This study examines the effectiveness of safeguarding the rights of women in the context of the Anglophone Cameroon armed conflict. Adopting a doctrinal and qualitative research methodology, the study analyses relevant international humanitarian law, international human rights law, and regional legal frameworks alongside documented practices in the North-West and South-West regions of Cameroon. The findings reveal a significant gap between Cameroon’s formal legal obligations and their practical implementation, resulting in persistent violations of women’s rights by both state and non-state actors. The study further finds that weak accountability mechanisms, institutional fragmentation, limited humanitarian access, and the marginalization of women from peace and security initiatives have undermined effective protection. The paper concludes that safeguarding women’s rights in the Anglophone conflict remains largely ineffective and argues that sustainable peace cannot be achieved without placing women’s protection and participation at the center of conflict response and peace-building efforts. The study contributes to existing scholarship by providing a context-specific legal appraisal of women’s rights protection in a protracted non-international armed conflict and offers policy-oriented recommendations aimed at bridging the gap between law and practice.
Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has posed persistent threats to maritime trade, regional stability, and coastal livelihoods, prompting increased legal and operational responses from littoral states. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the common initiatives of Cameroon and Nigeria in combating piracy, using a doctrinal legal methodology anchored in maritime security and human security theory. It examines the domestication of international maritime norms, institutional coordination mechanisms, and operational collaboration between the two states, while also assessing structural constraints that shape enforcement outcomes. The findings reveal a significant shift from fragmented and reactive enforcement toward coordinated maritime governance. Strengthened domestic legislation, improved prosecutorial frameworks, joint patrols, and enhanced intelligence cooperation have contributed to measurable improvements in maritime security and deterrence credibility. However, effectiveness remains conditional. Resource volatility, institutional fragmentation, uneven judicial specialization, intelligence integration gaps, and persistent socio-economic drivers of maritime crime limit the durability of current gains. The study advances scholarship by proposing a multidimensional governance-based framework for assessing anti-piracy effectiveness, moving beyond incident-count reduction to incorporate legal compliance, institutional capacity, operational coordination, and structural sustainability. It further reframes piracy suppression as a governance consolidation challenge rather than merely a naval enforcement issue. The study concludes that while Cameroon and Nigeria have made substantive progress in strengthening maritime governance, long-term stability in the Gulf of Guinea will depend on sustained institutional resilience, regional coordination, and structural reform.
This article examines the critical challenges facing Cameroon’s electricity sector, with a particular focus on power reliability and consumer protection from a corporate law and regulatory governance perspective. Cameroon’s electricity infrastructure is characterized by frequent power outages, limited generation capacity, and aging facilities, which undermine the sector’s ability to meet national energy demands effectively. These structural deficiencies are further compounded by weaknesses in corporate governance, regulatory oversight, and accountability mechanisms within electricity service providers. Through an analysis of the existing legal and regulatory framework governing the electricity sector, including the roles of key institutions such as the Electricity Sector Regulatory Agency (ARSEL), state-owned entities, and private operators, this study identifies governance gaps that contribute to service unreliability and inadequate consumer protection. It argues that the absence of enforceable consumer rights standards and weak corporate accountability leave electricity consumers with limited remedies in cases of prolonged outages, service fluctuations, and unfair billing practices. In this light, adopting an in-depth content analysis based on primary and secondary sources of data collection is imperative to achieve our goal. The article proposes legal and policy reforms grounded in corporate law principles, including enhanced regulatory oversight, increased investment through public-private partnerships, diversification of energy sources with an emphasis on renewables, and the adoption of a comprehensive Consumer Rights Charter for the electricity sector. This will go a long way to contribute to the development of a more reliable, accountable, and consumer-oriented electricity sector capable of supporting sustainable economic growth and improving the quality of life in Cameroon.
This study provides a comprehensive legal assessment of the effectiveness of anti-scamming measures in Cameroon, with specific focus on Buea. Scamming has emerged as a pervasive socio-economic challenge undermining public trust and causing significant financial losses across diverse sectors. The research critically examines the existing legal and institutional frameworks designed to prevent, detect, and penalize scam-related offenses, including relevant statutory provisions, enforcement mechanisms, and judicial practices. The primary objective is to evaluate how effectively these measures curb scamming activities within the Buea municipality and to identify gaps hindering optimal legal protection. The study adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative data. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders — including law enforcement officers, legal practitioners, victims of scamming, and local government officials — to capture nuanced insights into the practical challenges of enforcement. Additionally, survey questionnaires were administered to a representative sample of residents in Buea to quantify public perceptions of scamming prevalence and the perceived efficacy of legal measures. Relevant legal documents, policy instruments, and case law were also reviewed as part of a documentary analysis to map the statutory landscape and enforcement patterns. Quantitative data from surveys were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques to identify trends and correlations between demographic factors and perceptions of legal effectiveness. Qualitative interview data and documentary evidence were subjected to thematic analysis, enabling the identification of recurrent patterns, institutional strengths, and systemic weaknesses. Findings reveal that although Cameroon has enacted several legal instruments to combat scamming, enforcement remains weak due to limited resources, procedural inefficiencies, and low public awareness. The study concludes with recommendations for legal reform, enhanced institutional capacity, and community-based anti-scamming initiatives to strengthen the overall fight against scamming in Buea.
Transitional justice has emerged as a cornerstone for addressing the legacies of armed conflict, promoting accountability, reconciliation, and institutional reform in post-conflict societies. Despite its widespread adoption, the effectiveness and limitations of these mechanisms remain unevenly understood in African contexts. This study examines transitional justice in Rwanda and Sierra Leone within the framework of Sustainable Development Goal 16 (SDG 16), focusing on how judicial and non-judicial processes contribute to durable peace and governance. The research is theoretically anchored in Liberal Peace Theory, which underscores the role of democratic governance, rule of law, and human rights in sustaining peace, and Institutional Governance Theory, which emphasizes the critical role of institutional capacity, legitimacy, and structural conditions in the successful implementation of justice initiatives. Using a qualitative case-study methodology, the study analyzes legal frameworks, regional and international instruments, and socio-political factors shaping transitional justice processes. Findings reveal that while transitional justice has advanced accountability, strengthened institutions, and facilitated reconciliation, its transformative potential is constrained by political interference, resource limitations, and uneven implementation. The study concludes that integrating transitional justice with broader governance, socio-economic, and institutional reforms is essential to achieving sustainable peace. By linking theory, practice, and SDG 16, this research contributes to a comprehensive understanding of transitional justice’s potential and limitations in African post-conflict settings.
Trafficking in Persons (TIP) remains one of the most heinous transnational crimes that have evolved within the digital and conflict-driven landscape. The United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children (the Palermo Protocol), constitutes the primary international legal instrument in the fight against TIP. While the Protocol establishes a tripartite framework of prevention, protection and prosecution, emerging global realities have exposed significant gaps hindering its effectiveness. This study adopts a qualitative research methodology and a doctrinal method to reassess the Protocol in light of contemporary trafficking dynamics. It argues that despite the Protocols contribution to the harmonisation of legal trafficking definitions and its influence in the development of national anti-trafficking laws, digitalisation, armed conflicts and displacements have revealed structural gaps. The study suggests that the Palermo Protocol is outdated as it was initially designed for a state-centric system focused primarily on physical forms of trafficking. In contrast, contemporary trafficking is increasingly transnational, technologically-facilitated and embedded within conflict situations. The paper concludes that while the Protocol remains foundational, it requires substantial normative and institutional strengthening to meet the current digital and conflict related trafficking. The study therefore recommends the adoption of supplementary guidelines to address technology-facilitated trafficking, legal responses to conflict-related exploitation and the adoption of a more adaptive, victim-centered approach capable of capturing emerging forms of trafficking.
Justice is a central pillar of social order, and its administration reflects the historical, cultural, and institutional realities of a society. This study examines crimes and punishment in Mbumland between 1779 and 1996 through a historical analysis of indigenous, colonial, and post-colonial justice systems. Employing a qualitative historical methodology grounded in legal pluralism, the research draws on archival materials, doctrinal analysis, and relevant secondary literature to trace the evolution of justice administration across these three interconnected periods. The findings reveal that pre-colonial justice in Mbumland was largely community-centered and reconciliation-oriented, prioritizing restitution and social cohesion in addressing crimes and punishment; the colonial era introduced codified laws and formal courts that reshaped indigenous justice systems; and the post-colonial period inherited and reconfigured this dual structure, resulting in a plural justice framework marked by jurisdictional overlaps and institutional tensions. The study argues that the effectiveness of crimes and punishment in Mbumland has historically depended less on punitive severity and more on legitimacy, accessibility, and structural coherence. By offering a localized and periodized examination of justice systems in Mbumland, this research contributes to broader historical perspectives on the interaction between indigenous, colonial, and post-colonial legal orders and their enduring implications for justice administration.
Based on the original verbatim records of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) from April 30 to May 1, 1947, this study focuses on judicial inquiries into the causal background of the Hongqiao (Oyama) Incident and the outbreak of the August 13 Battle of Shanghai in China. Using an integrated analytical framework of critical discourse analysis, international criminal evidence rules, and modern Chinese–Japanese war history, this paper establishes a three‑layer model: discursive construction → judicial falsification → historical disenchantment. It systematically examines the discursive practices and power struggles among Japanese witnesses, the prosecution, and the Tribunal. The study finds that Japanese witnesses Suemasa Okamoto and Isamu Takeda fabricated a cohesive false narrative claiming that “China breached the 1932 Shanghai Truce Agreement; Japan acted in legitimate self‑defense”. To conceal Japan’s premeditated provocation and war of aggression, they employed legitimizing rhetoric, pervasive reliance on impermissible hearsay, strategic evasion, spatial obfuscation, responsibility externalization, and victimhood reversal. The prosecution dismantled the false narrative through rigorous evidence‑based cross‑examination, while the Tribunal upheld judicial justice through procedural authority. Court discourse during the trial was not merely factual exchange but a three‑dimensional struggle over war responsibility, historical narrative authority, and international justice. This study transcends disciplinary boundaries and provides both theoretical innovation and empirical evidence for historical justice, critical discourse studies, and China’s international narrative capacity.
The present paper aims to investigate the co-regulatory model of Regulation 2022/2065 for mitigating systemic risks arising from disinformation. The ultimate goal, according to the European legislator, is to respect the freedom of expression of users of online platform services and search engines in the context of VLOPs and VLOPEs. We are interested in the compatibility of the regulatory model and the principle of legality enshrined in the Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFREU), as well as the related risks and limitations of the regulation itself to mitigate systemic risks that do not conform to the principle of proportionality. Doubts, problems and criticisms remain numerous and certainly warrant thorough consideration of the suitability of co-regulation and the discipline and activity that entails the full moderation of content originating from online users.
The Italian Artificial Intelligence Act, enacted on September 17, 2025, represents the first comprehensive national implementation of the European Union’s AI Act. This study examines the Italian legislation through the theoretical lens of multi-level governance, analyzing its dual function as both a “bridging legislation” that translates EU framework into domestic practice and a site of significant regulatory innovation. Through detailed textual analysis and case studies, particularly in healthcare AI, this research investigates how Italy has navigated the complex interplay between supranational standardization and national specificity. The findings reveal that Italy has not merely passively transposed the EU AI Act but has actively engaged in “normative localization,” refining the risk-based approach with distinctive national characteristics—such as stringent safeguards for cultural heritage and tailored provisions for small and medium enterprises. The study further explores Italy’s creation of a coordinated regulatory architecture involving multiple existing authorities and its development of a multi-layered enforcement regime that innovatively combines administrative, civil, and criminal liabilities. The Italian approach demonstrates a sophisticated balancing of legal certainty through clear prohibitions and regulatory flexibility through adaptive tools like regulatory sandboxes. This analysis contributes to theoretical understanding of implementation dynamics in multi-level governance systems and offers practical insights for other jurisdictions developing AI governance frameworks. The Italian experience suggests that effective AI governance requires both principled foundation and contextual adaptation, providing valuable lessons for global AI governance amid ongoing technological evolution and regulatory competition.
This study sought to establish the relationship between research permits granted and the number of patents registered over 10 years in Kenya from 2014 to 2023. Over that period, Kenya ranked at number ten in Africa in terms of patents granted and very low in world rankings compared to South Africa, which ranked number 17 in the world. Data on research permits granted in Kenya, as well as patents registered was obtained from various sources. For purposes of comparing permits obtained and patents registered, only research permits granted in the sciences were considered. Results showed an increasing trend in the number of research permits obtained as well as in patents registered. Over the ten years, the relationship between research permits obtained and patents registered was represented by the equation Y= 0.0062X + 3.9473. The constant was interpreted as a ‘carry over’ effect due to delays in processing patents. All in all, very few patents are registered in Kenya as compared to the number of research permits granted.
The effective participation of duty counsel in the Plea Leniency System is crucial for safeguarding the legitimate rights of the accused and upholding judicial fairness. Since the revision of the Criminal Procedure Law in 2018, this mechanism has become an integral part of plea bargaining proceedings. However, multiple practical challenges persist. This paper argues that the core issue lies in the ambiguous role of duty counsel, who are not explicitly granted the status of defense counsel, resulting in a weak foundation for their procedural rights. Furthermore, inadequate protection of the right to access case files and the right to meet with clients in practice often reduces legal assistance to a mere formality. Additionally, a rigid subsidy mechanism fails to incentivize lawyers to deliver high-quality services. To address these shortcomings, this paper advocates for clarifying the defense counsel status of duty lawyers, systematically establishing pathways to secure their core rights, and implementing a flexible incentive system linked to workload and service quality. Such measures would enhance the effectiveness of their participation, strengthen institutional credibility, and ensure the system functions as intended.
Online shopping environments often confront consumers with complex choice structures and high cognitive demands. Within such contexts, pre-selected options have become a pervasive yet under-theorized element of digital choice architecture. This paper develops a non-empirical, conceptual analysis to examine how pre-selected options influence online purchase decisions by shaping consumer decision processes rather than directly altering consumer preferences. Drawing on insights from behavioral economics and marketing theory, the paper conceptualizes pre-selected options as a form of structural marketing intervention embedded in interface design. It argues that pre-selected options affect online purchasing through three interconnected mechanisms: decision simplification that reduces cognitive effort, perceived endorsement and choice framing that redefine default choices as normative, and behavioral inertia that facilitates commitment formation and purchase follow-through. The analysis further identifies key contextual moderators, including product type, purchase involvement, consumer experience, interface transparency, and competitive environment, which condition the effectiveness of pre-selected options. By reframing default design as an active marketing strategy rather than a neutral interface feature, this paper contributes to a deeper theoretical understanding of choice architecture in digital marketing and highlights the strategic and ethical implications of pre-selected options in online consumer decision-making.
This study critically examines state compliance with the recommendations of the African Commission and the decisions of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, drawing on the Translational Legal Process Theory to analyze how legal norms are interpreted, internalized, and implemented within domestic contexts. The study assesses the binding nature of these decisions, identifies challenges that hinder implementation, and evaluates the practical effectiveness of the African human rights system. Employing a doctrinal research methodology, the study analyzes relevant treaties, protocols, case law, and scholarly literature to understand the factors influencing compliance. Findings reveal that compliance remains inconsistent and often partial, primarily due to political resistance, limited acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction, weak regional enforcement mechanisms, domestic legal constraints, and reluctance to implement remedial measures. The study concludes that legal bindingness alone is insufficient to guarantee compliance, emphasizing the importance of political will, domestic incorporation of judgments, and robust monitoring mechanisms. Recommendations include reaffirming state acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction, strengthening African Union oversight, domesticating Court decisions, implementing capacity-building programs for officials, and fostering collaboration between the Commission and the Court. This study contributes to the discourse on human rights enforcement in Africa and provides practical strategies to enhance state accountability and the effectiveness of regional human rights institutions.
This study critically examines the prospects and challenges of protecting and enforcing registered and unregistered trademark rights within the Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle (OAPI) sub-region. Anchored in institutional theory and the economic incentive theory of trademarks, the research explores how legal harmonization through centralized registration interacts with decentralized national enforcement mechanisms to shape practical outcomes. Drawing on doctrinal analysis of the Bangui Agreement, national laws, and international treaties including TRIPS and the Paris Convention, the study assesses the effectiveness of civil, criminal, administrative, and border enforcement mechanisms. Findings reveal that while the OAPI framework provides strong legal protection for registered trademarks, enforcement effectiveness is uneven due to institutional weaknesses, procedural delays, limited judicial expertise, and inadequate protection for unregistered marks, particularly affecting informal and small-scale businesses. The study identifies systemic challenges including fragmented enforcement, high litigation costs, and low stakeholder awareness, which undermine the broader objectives of trademark law. Based on these findings, the research proposes context-specific recommendations to strengthen institutional capacity, harmonize enforcement procedures, expand protection for unregistered trademarks, and enhance awareness among stakeholders. The study contributes to knowledge by offering a nuanced analysis of OAPI’s hybrid intellectual property regime, highlighting enforcement gaps, and providing practical insights for policy reform, judicial practice, and regional cooperation, thereby advancing understanding of trademark protection and economic development in African regional IP systems.
In the context of the global data regulatory system reconstruction, customer data in financial CRM systems, characterized by sensitivity and cross-border mobility, face the core dilemma of “imbalance between compliance and transfer efficiency.” Based on the 2024 industry report by the International Financial Association and practical scenarios of multinational securities brokers, this paper proposes a three-dimensional technical framework of “dynamic grading – encryption adaptation – on-chain notarization” through literature research, model construction, and empirical testing. Using a sample of one million customer data records from a multinational securities broker, the results show that the framework achieves a compliance pass rate of 100%, reduces transfer latency from 189ms to 32ms (an improvement of 83%), lowers compliance audit labor costs by 42%, shortens the duration of cross-border business processing by 73%, and increases customer satisfaction by 27%. This study establishes a dynamic grading model for financial data across jurisdictions for the first time, filling the theoretical gap in balancing “compliance and efficiency.” The technical solution has been implemented in three multinational financial institutions, reducing compliance risk losses by over 20 million yuan annually, providing practical references for the data security governance of financial technology.
