The archaeological record is inherently fragile, and excavation is, by nature, destructive. While the recording of excavation processes has improved significantly, many archaeological sites excavated over the past decades remain under-reported or unpublished. These sites often have incomplete excavation records, hand-drawn sketches, non-annotated photographs, and fragmented fieldnotes associated with them, posing a significant challenge for contemporary researchers attempting to reconstruct past human activities. Recent technological advancements enable the collection of a significant amount of data; however without a proper data management plan (DMP), these records will meet a similar fate. Thus, implementing a DMP and associated narratives allows access to past excavation records, analyses, and interpretations. This paper explores the curatorial practices associated with legacy excavation data, focusing on the use of digital tools to rebuild information obtained during past excavations while emphasizing the need for a DMP as mandatory. The 19th-century cemetery of Carmo in Porto, Portugal, is used as a case study, demonstrating how CAD and GIS tools can be employed to spatialize fragmented data and identify patterns in mortuary practices while implementing appropriate curatorial practices. Despite the limitations imposed by the incompleteness of the original excavation records, in which only 120 of the 480 sets of excavated human remains could be accurately mapped, the analysis provided preliminary insights into the distribution of the human remains and thus the organization of the cemetery. The results highlight the critical need for a robust DMP prior to and during the excavation process, supporting field data collection and long-term curation. This ensures that the ‘destructive’ act of excavation results in a permanent and accessible digital record for future generations.
This study presents the technical–scientific investigation of a polychrome wooden sculpture attributed to Neroccio di Bartolomeo de’ Landi (1447–1500), a key figure in fifteenth-century Sienese art whose sculptural practice has remained analytically undocumented. The unpublished sculpture, likely representing Saint Ansanus and originally created in the 1470s, was historically reinterpreted as Saint Lazarus following its relocation to the former Hospital of San Lazzaro in Siena (Italy). A multi-analytical diagnostic campaign was undertaken to clarify its complex stratigraphy, guide conservation decisions, and reconstruct the artist’s original materials and techniques. The study integrated multispectral imaging, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, portable ED-XRF, mechanical stratigraphic assays, and cross-section microscopy, enabling a comprehensive reconstruction of both the original polychromy and subsequent repainting campaigns. Results revealed area-specific original paint systems, including a possible organic red lake on an alumina substrate, stable copper-based blue paint layers, and a sophisticated flesh-tone stratigraphy combining cinnabar-modulated “imprimitura” layers with lead-white-based upper tones. The analytical evidence also documented the material traces of the sculpture’s iconographic recontextualization and its post-industrial interventions, firmly dated by the presence of titanium dioxide associated with an iron-based blue compatible with Prussian blue. The conservation treatment, informed by stratigraphic and analytical data, enabled the selective removal of non-original layers while preserving historically significant early reworkings. The findings provide the earliest material characterisation of Neroccio’s polychrome technique, offering new insight into his workshop practice and laying the foundation for future comparative studies across media. More broadly, the study contributes to the technical literature on Italian Renaissance polychrome sculpture and demonstrates the interpretive value of integrated scientific methods in reconstructing the cultural biography of multilayered devotional artefacts.
Virtual architectural reconstructions have been developed for nearly four decades now, with the London Charter providing a framework for their scholarly use, particularly emphasising the need for transparent and evaluable documentation. Despite this, documentation remains uncommon due to the absence of binding standards, limited incentives, and the considerable effort required. Crucially, experience shows that documentation cannot realistically be produced retrospectively and must be created alongside with the reconstruction process. To address this gap, IDOVIR, a platform supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG), aims to streamline documentation workflows and improve communication among researchers by providing an efficient, web-based framework for recording and sharing information. More than ten years of experience with such approaches have both refined existing methods and highlighted the need for broader standardisation. The community is increasingly seeking to define general principles, criteria, and best practices for high-quality documentation beyond project-specific solutions. This paper contributes to that effort by outlining key requirements, proposing structural guidelines, and compiling relevant source types for reconstructions, with the goal of fostering consensus and improving the transparency, understanding, and evaluation of virtual reconstruction projects. With our proposal, we want to intensify the necessary communication process in the community to establish coordinated standardisation, which is lacking at the moment.
The production technology and provenance of 22 beads from the Dvāravatī-period site of Khok Phithak at Khu Bua, central Thailand (6th–11th centuries CE), was investigated using a multi-analytical approach combining VP-SEM-EDS, LA-ICP-MS, and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Macroscopic and microstructural evidence indicates that most of the glass beads were manufactured by the drawn-tube method, consistent with the supply of imported Indo-Pacific beads rather than local primary glass production at Khu Bua. However, the assemblage is not technologically homogeneous. From a compositional point of view, 19 beads belong to the m-Na-Al-1 subgroup, linking them to South Asian glassmaking traditions and the large-scale Indo-Pacific bead industry. One bead corresponds to plant-ash soda–lime glass, indicating an additional supply stream, while two outliers, a slag-derived ferruginous glass bead and a chalcedony/agate bead, demonstrate that bead circulation at Khu Bua also involved materials of distinct technological and geological origin. Coloring and opacification technologies, including Pb-Sn opacifiers in green and yellow-green beads and copper-based striking in orange beads, further indicate the use of technologically controlled recipes beyond simple bulk glass import. These results support the interpretation of Khu Bua as an inland consumer center embedded within long-distance Indian Ocean exchange networks.
The Buyeo Royal Tombs in Neungsan-ri represent a royal funerary complex of the Baekje Sabi period (A.D. 538–660) and form an important cultural landscape reflecting the spatial organization of the Sabi capital. As part of the Baekje Historic Areas inscribed on the World Heritage List, the site holds significant historical and spatial value. However, the present terrain differs substantially from its historical configuration due to extensive maintenance works conducted in 1966, including ground leveling, artificial embankment construction, and partial relocation of burial mounds. These modifications have obscured the original topographic context of the royal cemetery. In this study, we reconstruct the former terrain of the Buyeo Royal Tombs through the integration of historical maps, aerial photographs, archeological excavation data, and contemporary spatial datasets. To overcome methodological limitations regarding historical map accuracy, a rigorous three-stage backward georeferencing procedure utilizing Helmert and Thin-Plate Spline (TPS) transformations was applied. Airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based photogrammetry were newly acquired primarily to permanently archive the current state of the heritage site and provide an absolute geometric baseline. The reconstructed terrain approximates the landscape prior to modern interventions and enables analysis of the spatial organization of the royal cemetery. The results indicate that the Neungsan-ri royal tombs were strategically located on visually prominent south-facing slopes outside the Sabi capital, reflecting deliberate spatial planning and funerary ideology. This study provides a methodological reference for digital cultural landscape research and supports future heritage conservation and reconstruction planning.
Post-Byzantine portable icons are complex, multilayered heritage objects whose preservation may be influenced by interactions among their constituent materials, environmental conditions, and associated microorganisms. This study represents the first multidisciplinary investigation of this kind in Greece and examined five painted faces belonging to four post-Byzantine icons using a multidisciplinary approach combining environmental monitoring, stereomicroscopic and cross-sectional examination, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and micro-FTIR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), culture-dependent microbiology, molecular identification, biofilm assessment, amplicon-based metabarcoding, and bacterial functional prediction. The results revealed substantial material and microbial heterogeneity among the examined icons and individual sampling locations. Material characterization revealed differences in the preparation layers, textile reinforcements, pigments, and surface coatings, including calcite, calcium sulfates, kaolinite, Prussian blue, Pb- and Fe-rich pigments, and HgS. Cultivable microorganisms showed variable biofilm-forming capacities. To address the minimal-sampling constraints inherent to cultural heritage objects, amplicon-based metabarcoding was used as a complementary approach to broaden microbial community characterization beyond the fraction recoverable by cultivation. Metabarcoding revealed diverse bacterial and fungal DNA signatures; however, these signatures indicate microbial association and do not, by themselves, demonstrate microbial viability, metabolic activity, or active biodeterioration. No single material- or conservation-related variable consistently explained the observed microbial patterns. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of considering microbial occurrence within the broader context of material composition, environmental conditions, and conservation state. This multidisciplinary approach provides a useful framework for contextualizing potential biological risk and supporting evidence-based preventive conservation strategies for painted wooden heritage objects.
Chinese ethnic minority cultures are integral to the Chinese cultural system and play a significant role in shaping the nation’s image through international dissemination. Amid the profound integration of internationalization and digitalization, ethnic minority cultures draw on Guochao (national tide)—a distinctive contemporary Chinese dissemination paradigm—to merge traditional ethnic heritage with modern artistic forms, thereby enabling a structural shift from passive heritage preservation to dynamic cultural reproduction. This process helps consolidate China’s national memory and enhance the international dissemination of its cultural soft power. Taking Kam Big Song (in Chinese, Dong Zu Da Ge) as a typical case, this paper examines how ethnic minority cultures can adopt Guochao as a contemporary paradigm for cultural dissemination to transcend mere protection of intangible cultural heritage (ICH). The paper proposes a fourfold strategic framework—encompassing talent cultivation, symbolic translation, dissemination improvement, and technological empowerment—to facilitate the international outreach of ethnic minority cultures while preserving their cultural subjectivity and authenticity. By integrating locally rooted core values, modern cultural translation, and international recognition, ethnic minority cultures can fully showcase the cultural diversity and interconnectedness of Chinese civilization. Through this systematic approach to strengthening the Chinese national community, these efforts help enhance China’s international cultural influence.
The Heritage-Aligned Reconstruction Framework (HARF) was developed and initially evaluated using the Western Buddha of Bamiyan to structure evidence-constrained generative-AI heritage reconstruction. This article examines its bounded generalisation to the Temple of Bel at Palmyra, a materially, formally and iconographically contrasting heritage monument. The Dynamic Prompt Blueprint was re-instantiated using documentary evidence concerning the temple’s dimensions, limestone construction, Corinthian order, architectural layout, inscriptions and decorative programme, while retaining the framework’s top-level structure. A fourteen-item Palmyra questionnaire block was completed by 32 members of the interdisciplinary panel who also completed the Bamiyan evaluation. Within the Palmyra evaluation, Corinthian-column representation received the most favourable rating, whereas restored relief, inscription and surface detail received the least favourable rating. Eighteen respondents (56.2%) selected “none of the iterations are historically accurate” when assessing relief iconography. The paired difference in global prompt-sufficiency ratings did not reach the conventional significance threshold (p = 0.061), although ratings were positively associated across the two sites (Spearman ρ = 0.664, p < 0.001). The seven-domain keyword-coverage profiles were also positively rank-correlated (ρ = 0.771, p = 0.043). These findings support the bounded re-instantiation of HARF’s prompt schema and diagnostic evaluation logic in a contrasting heritage context. They do not establish equivalence between the two implementations, archaeological validity of the generated Temple of Bel images or validation of the complete HARF workflow.
Cultural heritage faces accelerating threats from armed conflict and climate-induced disasters, generating emergency scenarios in which the window for documentation may be measured in hours. Traditional high-fidelity workflows such as Terrestrial Laser Scanning and survey-grade Structure-from-Motion campaign can be operationally incompatible with these constraints due to costly hardware and specialist-team requirements. Emergency image acquisition can be undertaken with consumer-grade equipment, while the same photographic dataset can subsequently support both an SfM-MVS mesh for metric and geometric analysis and a 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representation for view-dependent visual interpretation. This paper evaluates an accessible, entirely graphical workflow for producing these complementary outputs, with particular attention paid to the 3DGS stage and without requiring programming or command-line expertise. We develop a theoretical case drawing on Brandinian restoration theory and the international conservation framework, introducing the concept of informational amnesia, the irreversible loss of a site’s documentary record, as a distinct and undertheorized category of heritage failure. We further argue that the democratization of 3DGS documentation cannot be measured by licensing cost alone: a tool distributed as open-source code but requiring command-line expertise presents an effective accessibility barrier functionally equivalent to a commercial paywall. True accessibility requires installable, graphical software operable by non-specialist practitioners in the field. We present a proof-of-concept application of this accessible pipeline, namely DJI Mini 5 Pro, RealityScan for photogrammetric reconstruction, and Lichtfeld Studio for 3DGS generation, to the Fontana d’Ercole at the Reggia di Venaria Reale (UNESCO World Heritage, Turin, Italy). Visual results show photorealistic, navigable 3DGS surrogates of architecturally complex heritage assets achievable by non-specialist operators within hours of acquisition and establish the empirical foundation for future quantitative evaluation.
Historic gardens are among the cultural heritage assets most vulnerable to climate change because their significance depends on the continuous interaction between living ecological systems, designed landscapes and cultural values. Although international policies increasingly advocate the integration of climate adaptation into heritage management, operational methodologies capable of systematically incorporating climate risk into the conservation planning of historic gardens remain limited. This paper develops the Historic Garden Climate Risk Management Framework (HG-CRMF), a multi-scale, heritage-centered methodological framework designed to integrate climate risk management within existing Conservation Management Plans (CMPs). The framework was developed through the synthesis of international heritage conservation principles, climate adaptation policies, environmental risk assessment methodologies and adaptive governance approaches. Its principal innovation lies in combining strategic conservation planning at the scale of the historic garden with operational implementation through Garden Conservation Units (GCUs), spatially coherent heritage entities that enable site-specific assessment of heritage values, climate hazards, exposure, vulnerability, adaptation measures and monitoring indicators. The HG-CRMF provides a structured workflow linking heritage significance, climate risk assessment, adaptation planning, monitoring and adaptive governance within a single decision-support methodology. Rather than constituting a stand-alone adaptation strategy, the framework strengthens existing conservation planning by embedding climate-informed decision-making into routine management processes.
During the Upper Paleolithic of southwestern France, the working of mammoth ivory is widely documented, but the use of mammoth bone has not been identified except for one possible Gravettian case. Here we report six worked objects made of mammoth bone from five sites in southwestern France, which have been identified taxonomically by proteomics using ZooMS. They were radiocarbon dated and their chronological distribution spans the Upper Paleolithic: Aurignacian (Sous-le-Roc, 35.5–34.6 ka cal BP), Gravettian (Brassempouy, 28.6–27.6 ka cal BP), Solutrean (Laugerie-Haute and Harpons, 26.3–23.4 and 24.2–23.7 ka cal BP), and Magdalenian (La Madeleine, 15.9–15.5 ka cal BP). Additionally, the technical use of unworked flakes from mammoth bones was identified at another site (Isturitz) and dated to the Gravettian (33.8–31.9 ka cal BP). We argue that in the Upper Paleolithic of southwestern Europe, the use of mammoth bone, while infrequent, is more common than previously documented, and identification biases account for its under-recognition. More systematic research is necessary to assess the extent of this phenomenon. This contribution highlights the research potential in collections from ancient excavations, provided that they are approached with a combination of complementary analytical methods.
Recent attempts at petroglyph dating have focused on measuring the manganese accumulation in the rock varnish coating that develops in a motif groove after it was engraved, under the assumption that this amount is systematically related to age. These efforts reflect the basic need for chronological control for both heritage management and research purposes. Despite the wide availability of portable X-ray fluorescence devices and their ability to take non-destructive field measurements of manganese, these applications have not examined the nature or location of the manganese being analyzed. We employ a mixture of electron microscope methods on samples of petroglyphs obtained from prior investigations of petroglyphs to assess this problem. Results reveal that significant amounts of manganese associated with petroglyphs derive from sources other than the post-engraving rock varnish coating, including the weathering rinds underlying varnish, isolated patches of inherited varnish that were not completely removed during petroglyph engraving, and silica glazes. Significant amounts of manganese also may be removed by microcolonial fungi that, in our samples, dissolve between 22 and 60% of a rock varnish coating. Until the manganese accumulation petroglyph dating approach is able to distinguish manganese subtractions from acid-producing fungi and additions from non-varnish sources from varnish sources, it cannot provide reliable age estimates.
Hand-drawn field maps are an irreplaceable archive of archaeological sites, yet converting scanned images of analog field maps into geospatial data remains a significant bottleneck. Currently, prompt-driven large language models (LLMs) cannot reproduce human heads-up digitizing consistently or affordably at scale. LLMs do, however, allow users to quickly produce custom computer vision (CV) workflows. We describe an example of one such custom Python (3.13.9) pipeline that extracts polygons that represent terraces on maps of fortified settlements (called pā) in Aotearoa New Zealand. It starts with scanned archaeological maps, decides if the map is in a cartographic style it can process, finds shapes, and decides if these shapes are valid based on a model trained on human-annotated examples. It works extremely quickly, outputs clean geospatial datasets, and has excellent spatial and formal accuracy, with a mean intersection-over-union (mIoU) for matched detections of 0.89–0.94. Detection performance, as measured by F1 scores covered an extremely wide range, from 0.800 to 0.00, with a mean of 0.528 (median = 0.588) typical of marginally successful CV studies. In practice, for every four terraces correctly mapped, three are missed, and three false positive are created. Critically, when we did a fit-for-purpose evaluation using an archaeologically meaningful metric (the Gini coefficient), we discovered a sliding scale of reliability. The best results were comparable with human-traced maps (F1 scores > 0.80). Below that, introduced error meant they were reliable in some senses but unreliable in others (F1 0.53 to 0.80). The worst were totally unreliable for quantitative analyses (F1 < 0.53). The lesson for archaeology is this: standard CV benchmarks alone cannot tell us whether an automated output is fit for archaeological inference. Archaeology would benefit from discipline-specific fit-for-purpose metrics, like the example here, as a regularized part of computer vision studies.
Natural earth pigments are polymineral materials whose present composition may differ from the source because of selection, grinding, heating, mixing, binder incorporation, and later alteration. This study develops a structured method for separating these contributions and for stating which provenance and degradation claims are supported by available evidence. The material is represented by geological, technological, and degradation components linked to elemental, mineralogical, spectroscopic, microscopic, and colour observations. Provenance is expressed as probabilistic compatibility across source levels, whereas degradation assessment ranks classes of environmental exposure rather than reconstructing a unique history. Published data from Roussillon yellow ochres and commercial and historical green earths are re-analysed as proof-of-concept checks, and a literature-based Herculaneum application illustrates degradation reasoning. The ochre analysis shows that mineralogical and colour relations remain directionally stable under robustness checks and that wet sieving can shift measured composition without eliminating family-level compatibility. The green-earth analysis shows that commercial labels and bulk chemistry alone do not reliably establish celadonite–glauconite family membership, whereas structural and vibrational evidence provides stronger discrimination. The Herculaneum case demonstrates how thermal events and subsequent exposure can alter ochre states. The study provides a practical diagnostic sequence and defines the present limits of inference.
This article proposes the first systematic overview of some twenty-five medieval Iranian wall paintings in their architectural contexts (10–15th centuries). Its focus on the artistic technology of wall painting, epigraphic programmes, craftspeople’s workshops, decorative iconography and aesthetics is intended to promote their preservation. The study of these wall paintings contributes to the understanding of the history of religion, artists’ social statuses and patrons’ identities. The medieval Iranian monuments’ constructive and decorative chronology, and in some cases their dating, can be revised through scrutiny of their wall paintings. The article presents a model of the development of medieval wall painting technology and aesthetics. Recently published archaeometric analyses, combined with in situ documentation of wall paintings, facilitate discussion of wall painting production technology, craftspeople’s mobility, and regional characteristics of wall painting. The relationship between the arts of wall painting, carved stuccos, applied moulded and stencilled stuccos, and tile revetments is discussed to better understand the logic behind the use of wall paintings, their role in decorating monuments, and their position within the decorative hierarchy of multimedia decorative programmes. A contextualised interpretation of wall paintings’ aesthetics, function and meaning is proposed.
Built cultural heritage in East Africa is often interpreted and taught through monument-based, stylistic, or externally derived frameworks that insufficiently account for the region’s overlapping environmental, cultural, historical, and socio-spatial processes. Responding to this theoretical and pedagogical gap, this article develops a regionally grounded theoretical model of East African built heritage as a layered system, with particular attention to Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Methodologically, the study adopts a qualitative, interpretive approach, combining a critical literature review, analysis of selected built heritage layers, and expert perspectives from East African and European/international respondents. The findings show that East African built heritage is shaped by five interrelated layers: environmental foundations, indigenous and vernacular systems, Swahili/coastal Indian Ocean urbanism, colonial reconfiguration, and postcolonial/contemporary transformation. These layers do not form a linear historical sequence; rather, they overlap, interact, are disrupted, and are reinterpreted through material practices, spatial transformation, memory, environmental knowledge, and everyday use. The article argues that East African built heritage is defined by a layered system that is hybrid, fragile, unevenly recognized, partly intangible, and negotiated. It concludes that architectural education must move beyond object-based conservation knowledge transfer toward competency building in historical interpretation, environmental understanding, community engagement, adaptive reuse, and critical design intervention.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being associated with the ways in which cultural heritage is preserved, presented, and promoted in tourism. Although AI offers new opportunities to enhance the visibility of gastronomic heritage, important questions remain regarding its relationship with authenticity, commercialization, and cultural identity. The aim of this study is to examine the role of AI in the transformation and preservation of Serbian gastronomic heritage from the perspective of hospitality and tourism employees, as they represent key stakeholders in the interpretation, promotion, and preservation of gastronomic heritage, as well as in the implementation of modern technologies within tourism practice. The research was conducted among employees working in restaurants, hotels, ethno-restaurants, agritourism farms, and tourism organizations in Serbia. Data were collected through a survey questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation and Kaiser normalization, correlation analysis, and regression analysis. The results indicate that employees perceive AI as having significant potential for the promotion, preservation, and transformation of gastronomic heritage. Furthermore, the Authenticity of Gastronomic Heritage was identified as a significant predictor of the Preservation of Gastronomic Heritage, while AI was positively associated with both the Authenticity of Gastronomic Heritage and the Transformation of Gastronomic Heritage. The findings also suggest that employees perceive commercialization not only as a market-driven process but also as a potential mechanism for enhancing the visibility and valorization of gastronomic heritage. Overall, the findings reflect the perceptions of hospitality and tourism employees and highlight the importance of aligning technological innovations with cultural values in the preservation and promotion of Serbian gastronomic heritage.
The preservation of submerged cultural heritage depends on the ability to locate, document, and monitor sites before they are degraded or lost. Although the North American Great Lakes contain thousands of exceptionally well-preserved shipwrecks, their large geographic extent and diverse operating environments present significant challenges for efficient archeological survey. This study presents a multi-platform autonomous survey framework developed and implemented during 2021–2022 field campaigns in Lake Michigan and Lake Ontario. The framework integrates autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs), crewed vessels, side-scan sonar, multibeam bathymetry, magnetometry, optical imaging, and field-based data review within a hierarchical workflow comprising wide-area assessment (WAA) reconnaissance, high-resolution geophysical (HRG) mapping, adaptive mission refinement, and visual confirmation. The surveys produced 19.72 km2 of geophysical coverage, including side-scan sonar mosaics, bathymetric surfaces, magnetic anomaly maps, and optical imagery that supported archeological interpretation. A case study from Lake Ontario demonstrates the framework’s effectiveness through the confirmation of a previously undocumented wooden shipwreck using complementary acoustic, magnetic, and visual datasets. Beyond the individual discoveries, the results demonstrate how integrated autonomous systems improve survey efficiency, support adaptive decision-making, and provide scalable methods for digital documentation, baseline site characterization, long-term monitoring, and preservation of submerged cultural heritage in freshwater and marine environments.
Biomolecular and multi-omics approaches have transformed archaeology and heritage science, yet they are still widely conceptualized as ancillary techniques that refine narratives built on artifacts, architecture, and texts. This Perspective argues instead for treating molecules as primary archaeological evidence with their own epistemic status, temporalities, and bias structure. Drawing on a corpus of multi-omics case studies from the central and eastern Mediterranean (chiefly Sicily, Malta, and Egypt), together with comparative material from the lower Danube, Polynesia, and the Andes, and engaging directly with the philosophy of science, we adopt a critical entity realism grounded in the practice of physical intervention on molecular entities, and we develop evidential reasoning chains that connect instrumental data to historical phenomena. From this grounding, we propose a six-dimensional epistemic framework: (1) redefinition of archaeological evidence; (2) molecular counter-archive against preservation bias; (3) polytemporality of molecular signals; (4) ethics and conservation as internal epistemic variables; (5) identity, boundaries, and connectivity in a molecular key; and (6) methodological pluralism and interpretive convergence. The framework has concrete implications for curatorial policies, sampling strategy, and data governance, and opens a productive dialogue between biomolecular heritage science and archaeological theory.
Digital technologies have significantly advanced documentation, management, and dissemination of Cultural Heritage (CH) through reality capture, Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM), and Extended Reality (XR). However, the digitisation of large and historically stratified heritage sites still relies on fragmented workflows that compromise interoperability and interrupt the continuity of geometric and semantic information throughout the heritage lifecycle. This paper proposes and validates a platform-independent, ecosystem-based methodology integrating multi-scale reality capture, hybrid Scan-to-HBIM modelling, semantic information management, interoperability, and XR within a continuous digital workflow. The methodology was validated through the large-scale digitisation of the Certosa di Pavia, where more than 1500 terrestrial laser scans, over 200,000 photographs, and approximately 50 billion points were acquired across a monumental complex covering nearly 331,000 m2. The proposed framework reconstructs irregular architectural geometries with millimetre-scale accuracy (σ = 0.005 m) while preserving geometric reliability, semantic consistency, and information traceability across point-cloud processing, HBIM environments, Common Data Environments (CDEs), and XR applications. The results demonstrate that the effective digitisation of complex CH depends not only on the accuracy of individual technologies but also on their coordinated integration within interoperable digital ecosystems. The proposed methodology provides a transferable framework for preserving knowledge continuity throughout the heritage lifecycle, enabling HBIM to evolve from a geometric representation into a dynamic knowledge environment supporting conservation, management, research, education, and public dissemination.
