Bioactive peptides derived from animal sources have attracted growing interest in functional food and pharmaceutical research due to their diverse physiological activities and high bioavailability. Loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus), a protein-rich freshwater fish with low fat content, has emerged as a promising source of bioactive peptides. Recent studies have found that loach peptides have many biological effects, such as anti-oxidation, anti-fatigue, anti-bacteria, immunomodulation, anti-cancer, anti-hypertension, and anti-osteoporosis activities. In this review, the preparation, separation, purification and characterization of loach peptides were summarized. The recent progress of biological functions of loach peptides was also discussed. At present, the research of loach peptide is still in the initial stage, the relationship between the structures and functions of loach peptides, the molecular mechanisms of the function of loach peptides are needed to be further studied. In addition, this review addresses the challenges associated with the application of loach peptides and summarizes recent advances in their deep-processing and high-value utilization, aiming to provide a reference for future studies and to facilitate the continued development and broader application of loach peptides.
A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 18 amino acids in special formula milk powder. This method was based on pre-column derivatization with phenyl isothiocyanate, separation on a C18 column, ultraviolet detection, and quantification using external standards. Acid hydrolysis using 6 mol/L HCl under autoclaving at 120 u00B0C for 2 h was optimized and compared with conventional oven hydrolysis at 110 u00B0C for 24 h. The results revealed that all 18 amino acids yielded linear correlation coefficients exceeding 0.999. The limits of detection and quantification ranged from 0.07 to 0.32 u03BCg/mL and from 0.23 to 1.07 u03BCg/mL, respectively. The precision, repeatability, and stability were 0.06%u20132.44%, 0.32%u20132.22%, and 0.19%u20132.77%, respectively, and the spiked recoveries ranged between 85.92% and 107.55%. The developed method allowed the analytical run time for all amino acids to be reduced to 35 min. Another advantage was that the proposed method enabled quantification of tryptophan, asparagine, and glutamine, which are not detected by the standard method defined in GB 5009.124u20132016 National food safety standardsu2013determination of amino acids in food. Overall, the obtained results demonstrate that our method allowed the simultaneous quantification of 18 amino acids in special formula milk powder with improved precision, sensitivity, and efficiency after optimization of the hydrolysis and detection conditions. This method is expected to prove suitable for the quality control of foods for special medical purposes.
Eggshell surfaces are highly susceptible to Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteritidis, demanding rapid, non-destructive detection. This study evaluated hyperspectral imaging (HSI) for pathogen discrimination. Visible-near-infrared (Vis-NIR) and short-wave infrared systems acquired data from eggs contaminated at 103u2013105 CFU/mL. Raw Vis-NIR spectra with competitive adaptive reweighted sampling provided optimal features. The pathogens showed opposite reflectance trends, attributed to biofilm structural differences affecting light scattering and absorption. Classification models achieved up to 91.11% accuracy in pathogen identification and 88.89% accuracy in differentiating E. coli levels. Vis-NIR-HSI shows great potential for rapid, non-destructive eggshell pathogen detection, with a clarified mechanistic framework.
This study comprehensively investigates the molecular and ecological mechanisms by which florfenicol (FFC) residues drive multidrug resistance (MDR) in Salmonella and the intestinal microbiota. By integrating long-term in vitro induction with an in vivo mouse model of dietary exposure, we evaluated the risk of resistance development of FFC residues. In vitro results demonstrated that continuous FFC pressure rapidly evolved susceptible Salmonella into highly resistant strains, with minimum inhibitory concentrations escalating from 8 to u2265 64 mg/L. Crucially, this process triggered broad cross-resistance to non-targeted antibiotics, including quinolones and u03B2-lactams. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis confirmed this phenotype was primarily driven by the significant overexpression of transmembrane efflux pump genes (fexA, tetA) and the ribosomal protection gene optrA. At the microecological level, metagenomic sequencing revealed that FFC exposure induced a dramatic expansion of the intestinal resistome. Strategies for resistance converged on the comprehensive upregulation of ATP-binding cassette, resistance-nodulation-division, and major facilitator superfamily efflux pump families, alongside target modification mechanisms. Furthermore, FFC exposure significantly disrupted intestinal homeostasis, driving the microbial community toward a dysbiotic state dominated by opportunistic pathogens harboring abundant resistance genes, specifically Proteobacteria and Enterobacteriaceae. In conclusion, FFC acts as a potent stressor that not only induces MDR at the single-bacterium level through efficient efflux and target protection but also synergistically enriches broad-spectrum resistance genes and reshapes the host microbiome structural composition. These findings highlight the critical ecological risks of FFC residues in the food chain and underscore the need for strict residue control.
This study investigated the improvement of gel properties in low-salt chicken breast mince and its underlying mechanism by adding different proportions of egg yolk (EY). Results showed that adding 1.0% EY significantly improved the textural properties of the low-salt chicken breast mince, the hardness increased from 900 to 1 059 g, and the springiness rose from 0.88 to 0.95. Meanwhile, the cooking loss decreased from 12.3% to 9.02%, and the water-holding capacity (WHC) increased from 60.67% to 82.67%. The relaxation peaks of immobilized water (T22) and free water (T23) both shifted toward lower relaxation time, which resulted in a dense microstructure and enhanced WHC, comparable to the positive control group. Further extraction of myofibrillar protein (MP) revealed that 1.0% EY addition significantly increased particle size and surface hydrophobicity while reducing free sulfhydryl content, the particle size increased from 44.29 to 96.63 u03BCm, the surface hydrophobicity rose from 151.9 to 164.20 u03BCg, and the free sulfhydryl content decreased from 18.99 to 15.14 u03BCmol/g, this was accompanied by a structural shift from u03B1-helix to u03B2-sheet and enhanced fluorescence intensity. Additionally, increased disulfide bond and hydrophobic interactions enhanced cross-linking between EY and MP. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and laser confocal analysis confirmed protein aggregation, forming a compact gel network structure. This study elucidates the improvement of EY on the gel properties of low-salt minced meat and its mechanism of action, providing a theoretical basis for its application in low-salt minced meat products.
The quality deterioration of liquid egg yolks caused by increased sterilization temperature was alleviated. This study investigated the effects of sucrose, glucose, trehalose, and arabinose on the heat aggregation behavior of egg yolks. The results showed that after heat treatment, saccharides significantly increased the thermal denaturation temperature, effectively inhibited heat-induced thickening, and slowed the decrease in soluble protein content and emulsifying activity of the liquid egg yolk. Moreover, the Fourier transform infrared spectrometry and surface hydrophobicity data indicated that saccharides could alleviate the changes in the degree of structuration and the exposure of hydrophobic residues to egg yolk protein molecules. It was also found that the aggregation degree of sugared egg yolks was relatively low according to the microstructure and particle size. In summary, sucrose, glucose, trehalose, and arabinose could alleviate the heat aggregation behavior of egg yolks and could be applied to produce liquid egg yolks with enhanced heat stability.
Whole egg is a nutrient-dense matrix, yet its application in beverages is often constrained by poor colloidal stability and u201Ceggyu201D off-flavor. This study elucidated dose-dependent effects of mixed lactic acid bacteria inoculation on the physicochemical properties, protein structural evolution, and flavor quality of a fermented whole-egg beverage (WEB). A 1:1 (V/V) mixture of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus (total viable count: (1.1 u00B1 0.1) u00D7 109 CFU/mL) was inoculated into pasteurized whole egg beverage matrix at 0%, 1%, 3%, 5% and 7% (V/V), corresponding to groups WE, FWE-1%, FWE-3%, FWE-5% and FWE-7%. Fermentation proceeded at 42 u00B0C for 4 h, followed by 36 h ripening at 4 u00B0C. All samples were characterized using dispersion metrics, spectroscopy, electrophoresis, in vitro digestion, gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry, electronic nose, electronic tongue, and sensory evaluation. Fermentation acidified WEB, to pH 4.15u20134.36, decreased relative turbidity (normalized to the control), and improved dispersion uniformity (minimum polydispersity index was 0.305 at 7%). Soluble protein content increased to 10.24u201312.27 mg/g (vs. 2.53 mg/g in the control), and antioxidant capacity was enhanced, with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical and 2,2u2032-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) cation radical scavenging rates reaching 95.84% (FWE-5% group) and 82.14% (FWE-7% group), respectively. Second-derivative ultraviolet, intrinsic fluorescence, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy amide I redshift indicated protein conformational remodeling, supported by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showing progressive degradation of high-molecular-weight subunits. These changes improved nutritional functionality, with in vitro protein digestibility maximized at 3% inoculation. Flavor analyses revealed fermentation-driven reconfiguration of volatile and taste profiles, including aroma enrichment and reduced bitterness. Sensory results identified 3% inoculation as optimal, delivering the highest overall acceptability with balanced sourness and diminished eggy odor. This research provides a scientific basis for optimizing inoculation levels in fermented WEB and offers new perspectives for the development of functional egg-based fermented products.
In this study, spherical aggregates were prepared by ovalbumin (OVA) and sodium tripolyphosphate at pH 7 and 65 u00B0C for 0, 6, 12, 18, 24 h, and the properties of phosphorylated OVA (P-OVA) spherical aggregates forming and stabilizing Pickering O/W emulsions were studied. Results showed that the P-OVA heated for 12 h showed the highest surface hydrophobicity, which was demonstrated by static contact angles. The fluorescence intensity results showed that the more chromophore were exposed to the surrounding microenvironment because of protein conformational transitions. The dynamic tracking of P-OVA spherical aggregates was performed by transmission electron microscope, and the observation demonstrated that spherical aggregate formed after 12 h of heating were closely distributed and well dispersed, showing a very dense network shape. Besides, the emulsifying ability of P-OVA spherical aggregates was demonstrated by dynamic interfacial tension, which was due to the hydrophobic interaction in protein aggregates enabling the formation of stable Pickering nano-droplets. The Pickering emulsion stabilized by P-OVA spherical aggregates showed better salt ion stability (0u2013100 mmol/L NaCl) and thermal stability (0u201395 u00B0C) as compared to emulsions prepared by the unheated sample. These findings demonstrate the unique properties of spherical aggregates based on P-OVA for preparing Pickering emulsions, which can provide theoretical guidance in the food industry system.
The antioxidant and protective effects of phosvitin phosphopeptides (PPPs) in human neuroblastoma were studied. Phosvitin from chicken egg yolk was pretreated using high-temperature mild pressure (HTMP) conditions and then hydrolyzed using trypsin (T), Multifect 14L (M), and trypsin + Multifect 14L (TM) to prepare 4 PPPs treatments (HTMP, HTMP-T, HTMP-M, and HTMP-TM). The antioxidant and protective properties of PPPs were assessed using chemical analyses and human neuroblastoma (SH-SY-5Y) cells. All PPPs exhibited reducing power and radical scavenging, metal-chelating, u03B2-carotene bleaching inhibitory, and lipid peroxidation inhibitory activities, but HTMP-TM had the highest antioxidant activity. HTMP-TM increased cell viability and reduced reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis in stressed (H2O2-treated) SH-SY-5Y cells. Additionally, HTMP-TM downregulated B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2)-associated X protein/Bcl-2 and caspase-3 expression but upregulated catalase expression in oxidatively stressed SH-SY-5Y cells. It was concluded that HTMP-TM exerted protective effects through their antioxidative and anti-apoptotic properties in oxidatively stressed SH-SY-5Y cells.
Multidimensional impact of diet composition on egg quality and function has become a research hotspot in the laying hen industry. However, there were relatively few reports on the effect of diet composition on the composition of egg white and its heat-induced gel behavior. Based on this, the system compared the differences in Roman egg white heat-induced gel behavior, protein composition, molecular conformation and molecular interaction under the dietary models of corn distillersu2019 grains, corn and soybean meal and flaxseed, revealing the potential influence mechanism of dietary composition on heat-induced gel behavior. The results indicated that the egg white protein gel under the corn and soybean meal diet pattern had the best gel properties, with hardness and water holding capacity significantly increased by 23.1% and 2.0% respectively compared to the corn distillersu2019 grains diet pattern. The improvement in the gel behavior might be attributed to the changes in the material composition of egg white proteins (increased protein and amino acid contents), protein aggregation state (reduced particle size and weakened aggregation), molecular structure (increased u03B2-sheet relative content and decreased thermal denaturation temperature), and intermolecular interactions (enhanced hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bonds). These findings will provide a scientific basis for regulating the performance of egg heat-induced gel from the nutritional source of laying hens and for the development of customized egg products.
This study investigated the synergistic effects of supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCD) combined with sucrose treatment on the foaming properties and freeze-thaw stability of egg white protein (EWP). The results demonstrated that SCCD-sucrose treatment significantly enhanced the foaming capacity, achieving a maximum of 139.5% (4.6-fold increase over the control) at 9 MPa for 60 min with 10 g/100 mL sucrose, while maintaining the foaming stability (FS) which was compromised by SCCD treatment alone. Furthermore, the treated EWP exhibited markedly improved stability against repeated freeze-thaw cycles. Mechanism analysis revealed that sucrose promoted the formation of larger protein aggregates, as evidenced by increased particle size, and significantly reduced surface tension, enhancing adsorption at the air-water interface. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated a rise in u03B1-helix relative content, contributing to structural ordering, while rheological measurements showed improved elastic modulus (Gu2032), supporting FS. Scanning electron microscopy further revealed a more cohesive and dense protein network of SCCD-sucrose treated group. These synergistic modifications counteracted the structural loosening induced by SCCD and facilitated the formation of a robust interfacial film. The findings provide an effective and promising physical modification strategy for enhancing the functional performance of frozen-stored egg white liquid in the egg processing industry.
Chronic insomnia can significantly impair cognitive function and emotional stability, and may even trigger or exacerbate systemic health issues such as cardiovascular disease and metabolic disorders. This study intended to identify novel potential sleep-promoting peptide candidates from egg proteins and elucidate their molecular mechanisms with u03B3-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type-A receptor (GABAAR), orexin 2 receptor (OX2R), and nociceptin/orphanin-FQ receptor (NOPR). Through in silico hydrolysis, water solubility and toxicity prediction, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations, six novel potential peptide candidates were identified. Among these, QPVDNY exhibited the strongest binding affinities of u20139.2, u20139.7 and u20139.0 kcal/mol with GABAAR, OX2R and NOPR, respectively. Subsequently, peptide LKPIAAEVY showed affinities of u20138.6, u20139.7 and u20138.2 kcal/mol with the three receptors, respectively. Molecular docking results showed that peptides QPVDNY and LKPIAAEVY bound to residues Leu259, Thr256, His267, and Glu270 of GABAAR via u03C0-alkyl and hydrogen bonds, formed u03C0-alkyl bonds with residues Pro131, Cys107, Phe227, Phe346 and His350 of OX2R. In addition, these two peptides formed u03C0-alkyl bonds and hydrogen bonds with residues Val283, Met134 and Tyr131 of NOPR, meanwhile, they bound to residue Asp130 of NOPR via hydrogen bonds and a salt bridge. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the good stability of the peptide-receptor complexes. This study identifies novel potential candidates for natural sleep-promoting foods and establishes an efficient approach for screening food-derived bioactive peptides.
Hesperidin (HES) is a citrus flavanone glycoside with promising bioactivities but limited aqueous solubility, which restricts its utilization in food systems. Here, a solvent-free pH-driven strategy was developed to encapsulate HES using ovalbumin (OVA) as a protein carrier, and the structural responses and antioxidant performance of the resulting OVA-HES systems were systematically evaluated at the alkaline driving stage (pH 12) and after neutralization (pH 7). Encapsulation efficiency (EE) increased monotonically at pH 12 and reached 74.75% at 0.8 mg/mL HES, whereas EE exhibited a bell-shaped dependence after neutralization and peaked at 51.64% at 0.6 mg/mL. Fluorescence quenching, Stern-Volmer analysis and docking collectively supported complex formation dominated by static quenching and multiple hydrogen-bond interactions, with stronger binding at pH 12 (K = 49.3 u00D7 1010 L/mol) than at pH 7 (K = 3.45 u00D7 1010 L/mol). Moderate HES loading enhanced free sulfhydryl exposure (maximum at 0.6 mg/mL) and improved 2,2u2032-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) cation radical scavenging ability, with a peak value of 64.51% at pH 7. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, water-holding capacity, low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, and scanning electron microscope analyse further indicated that intermediate HES levels (0.4u20130.6 mg/mL) promoted a denser and more continuous gel network, whereas excessive HES induced heterogeneous aggregation and reduced water retention. Overall, this work demonstrates a pH- and dosage-dependent route for incorporating HES into OVA matrices and provides mechanistic insights for designing antioxidant protein gels via solvent-free encapsulation.
Preserved duck egg yolk (PEY) gradually formed a distinctive liquid inner core (L-PEY) and solidified outer layer (S-PEY) during alkaline pickling. However, the distinctions in small molecule metabolites between these two regions have remained unclear. In this study, PEY, S-PEY, and L-PEY were extensively compared using widely focused metabolomics. The majority of the 596 metabolites found were fatty acyls (FAs) (14.4%), organic acids and their derivatives (12.9%), and amino acids and their metabolites (22.9%). The major classes, which combined accounted for 56.4%u201379.1% of the total abundance, were glycerophospholipids (GPs), amino acids and their metabolites, and organic acids and their derivatives, according to relative quantitative abundance analysis. A total of 117, 47, and 169 differential abundance metabolites were identified in the comparisons of L-PEY vs. PEY, S-PEY vs. PEY, and L-PEY vs. S-PEY, respectively, mainly belonging to amino acids and their metabolites and FAs. GPs and amino acids were more abundant in L-PEY than in S-PEY, but FAs were significantly more abundant in S-PEY. Specifically, lysophospholipid (20:4/0:0), pyroglutamic acid, L-valine, lysine, and histidine were significantly more abundant in L-PEY, whereas free fatty acid (FFA) (22:5), FFA (20:2), and 12,13-epoxyoctadecenoic acid were significantly more abundant in S-PEY. These findings provide new insights into the metabolic basis of regional differentiation and quality formation in PEY.
Temperature fluctuations during storage and transportation can compromise the quality of aquatic products. In this study, Pacific salmon bone collagen (SBC) was extracted from Pacific salmon bones and used to prepare a salmon bone collagen emulsion (SBCE). Pacific salmon fillets were treated with SBC, and their antifreeze activity was measured in terms of texture characteristics, moisture retention, color difference changes, and flavor stability during multiple freeze-thaw cycles. Subsequently, the physicochemical stability of emulsions with different oil contents was evaluated under ambient storage, centrifugation, and freeze-thaw challenging. Antifreeze efficacy was evaluated by subjecting the Pacific salmon fillets with SBCEs during freeze-thaw cycles. Studied the potential of SBCE freezing and thawing to maintain the quality of Pacific salmon. The results showed that emulsions containing 60%u201370% oil phase exhibited the highest stability. Among formulations, SBCE2.0 most effectively preserved texture, reduced moisture loss, and limited denaturation and aggregation of myofibrillar proteins. Overall, SBCE significantly alleviated ice-induced quality loss in fish product and shows promise as a natural antifreeze agent for aquatic products.
Animal-derived foods, including meat, aquatic products, dairy products, and eggs, constitute an important source of nutrition for humans. Traditional processing methods for animal-derived foods predominantly rely on thermal treatments; however, such approaches can lead to losses in nutritional components, texture, and flavour. Cold plasma technology, an emerging non-thermal processing technique, enables the treatment of animal-derived foods at low temperatures. This method effectively mitigates heat-sensitive losses of nutrients and textural properties while ensuring food safety. Consequently, it has garnered significant research interest in recent years regarding the processing and utilisation of animal-derived foods. This paper systematically reviews the research progress in applying cold plasma technology to animal-derived foods. The primary generation modes and operational mechanisms of cold plasma are initially reviewed. Subsequently, its characteristic effects within animal-derived food matricesu2014specifically microbial inactivation, textural modification, and alterations in nutritional componentsu2014are outlined. Finally, the limitations of current cold plasma technologies and potential future research directions are summarised. This review aims to provide a scientific reference for applying cold plasma technology to quality control and functional enhancement in the production and processing of animal-derived foods, whilst offering theoretical support for advancing its standardisation and industrial implementation.
Edible insects are a promising sustainable protein source to meet rising global nutritional needs, owing to their high resource efficiency, low environmental impact, and favorable feed conversion ratios. Food safety remains a critical concern for industry expansion, with allergenic risk representing a major challenge. Primary prevention requires identification of key allergens and limiting exposure, underscoring the importance of effective detection and mitigation approaches. Robust regulatory frameworks for insect farming and processing are also essential to ensure consumer confidence and safe consumption. This review consolidates currently documented edible insect allergens and their sensitization mechanisms, critically assesses existing allergen detection technologies, and evaluates processing methods for reducing allergenicity. Furthermore, it examines regional regulatory frameworks and market safety. Despite market growth, consumer acceptance remains limited; improving sensory properties and incorporating insects into processed foods may enhance adoption. Tropomyosin and other major allergens can induce either primary or cross-reactive sensitization. Available detection methods are discussed with their respective advantages and limitations, while processing techniques are shown to partially lower allergenicity. Specific regulations exist in the United States and European Union, though the absence of such standards in China currently constrains domestic market development. By providing an integrated analysis of detection, mitigation, and regulatory policies, this review supports the safe and sustainable growth of the edible insect market.
Foodborne diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins in animal-derived foods pose a serious global public health threat. Conventional approaches for pathogen detection are often hampered by laborious processes, prolonged turnaround times, and a reliance on complex instrumentation typically confined to laboratory settings, thereby limiting the applications of rapid, on-site analysis. Optical biosensors have recently emerged as an attractive alternative for food safety monitoring, owing to their high sensitivity, rapid response, and portability. This review outlines recent progress in optical biosensing, with a focus on its application for detecting bacterial pathogens and toxins in foods of animal origin. First, we outline common pathogenic microorganisms and their associated toxins, along with the corresponding clinical manifestations and preventive measures. Subsequently, we elaborate on the mechanisms and applications of major optical biosensing strategies, including colorimetric, fluorescence, and Raman spectroscopy, highlighting performance enhancement achieved through functional nanomaterials. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages of multiple signal detection strategies in improving detection sensitivity, accuracy and reliability. Finally, we present current challenges and future development trends in optical sensing technologies for food safety, aiming to provide a reference for developing efficient, sensitive, and on-site detection tools for foodborne pathogens.
Kokumi taste, a sensory attribute that enhances flavor complexity, continuity, and mouthfulness without being a basic taste, has gained significant scientific attention. This review synthesizes advances in kokumi peptide research, focusing on their flavor-enhancing mechanisms, receptor interactions (notably calcium-sensing receptors), natural sources, and food applications. We critically evaluate global research progress and key debates, such as receptor synergy mechanisms and limitations of current flavoring mechanism. Future directions emphasize establishing a global kokumi peptide database, developing artificial intelligence-driven prediction platforms, improving in vivo validation, and optimizing industrial-scale production. This review aims to provide a theoretical foundation for food flavor science and to facilitate the integration of kokumi peptides into the development of functional foods and flavor enhancers.
Nitrite is a major hazardous substance in fermented sausages, and excessive human intake poses health risks. This study aimed to develop a low-nitrite fermented duck sausage. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can effectively degrade nitrite; astaxanthin exhibits excellent antioxidant and colorant properties, and nanoencapsulation technology can improve astaxanthin stability. Additionally, milk fat globule membrane-enriched whey protein powder (MFGM-WPI) is a promising food-grade encapsulation wall material. In this study, a selected strain of Lactobacillus sakei was combined with other LAB as the starter culture for duck sausage fermentation. Furthermore, gum arabic and MFGM-WPI were used as raw materials to prepare a novel astaxanthin nanoparticle additive, which aimed to improve the color of the sausage and endow it with antioxidant effects. The results showed that the fermented duck sausages added with astaxanthin-rich nanoparticles and composite LAB exhibited superior color stability and textural properties, characterized by a reddish hue, reduced nitrite content, and enhanced astaxanthin levels. Among all tested fermented duck sausage groups (including the natural fermentation group, single LAB fermentation group, and free astaxanthin-added group), the specific group (astaxanthin-rich nanoparticles + composite LAB) exhibited the highest 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities, alongside the lowest peroxide value. In conclusion, the combination of composite LAB strains and astaxanthin nanoparticles represents a potentially effective strategy for reducing nitrite content and enhancing the antioxidant capacity of fermented duck sausages.
