Patterns and tempo of entry into marriage and motherhood, birth spacing, and exit from the childbearing process play significant roles in the realization of societal level fertility. Childbearing models using quantum measures of period fertility, namely, age-specific fertility rates, to develop projected temporal indices of the childbearing process have been extended to 16 Arab countries representing over 90% of the population of the Arab world. Comparisons of 2 Arabian Gulf countries revealed diverse levels and patterns reflecting the populations' backgrounds, levels of societal development, and the stage of demographic transition. Results for Arab countries and national populations indicated younger projected ages at 1st birth, older projected ages at last birth, longer projected reproductive spans, and shorter projected birth spacing than expatriate populations. It is suggested that reproductive span is the best predictor of fertility, as well as of mortality and socioeconomic factors, at the societal level. Countries in which childbearing is initiated at earlier ages also show termination of childbearing at later ages and thus tend to have relatively higher fertility and mortality levels, poorer health conditions, and unfavorable social environments.
In order to assess the cost of children throughout Egypt, in this case the direct maintenance costs of goods and services used until the child is self-supporting, a population sample representative of Egypt's total population in terms of socioeconomic status, occupation and geographical distribution was investigated. Food expenditures increase with the number of children in the household and with the rise in socioeconomic status. Educational expenses increase in a similar manner. There is positive correlation between the educational level of parents and their contribution to their children's education expenditures. The average amount spent on clothing per child declines the family size increases, especially within low socioeconomic groups. A rise in socioeconomic status or an increase in the number of children results in only a small increase in funds allocated for recreation. Results indicate that in rural societies the costs of children are small, but in urban and industrial workers' residence areas additional children result in additional spending.
Statistics show that fertility in Arab countries is still high compared with prevailing rates in developed countries and the levels attained in some developing countries during the past decade. Most fertility studies in the Arab world have been functional, descriptive and analytical. They have not attempted to develop theories on fertility and its determinants that would reflect current situations. Efforts are being made at both the individual and institutional levels to encourage theoretical research. Family planning still dominates Arab fertility studies, but it is necessary to cover other concepts such as the supply of children, the demand for children, and the determinants which pertain to both the individual and the surroundings affecting these concepts. Sources of information on fertility in the Arab world need to be collected, confined to a research center or university within the Arab world, and made available to Arab researchers. Studies on various Arab societies, designed by Arab researchers, need to be undertaken.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the patterns and determinants of the extent and duration of breastfeeding in Jordan. Data is from a national sample of women surveyed by the Government of Jordan in 1976 as part of the World Fertility Survey program. Women's level of education appears to have the expected negative impact on the decision to ever breastfeed the child or not. Having other children aged 4-6 in the home seems to reduce the probability of ever breastfeeding. In terms of short and long-diration breastfeeders, mother's education has the expected negative effect within both groups of women, but father's education has a significant impact only for the longer duration breastfeeders. Working away from home seems to interfere with breastfeeding only at the longer durations. The effects on breastfeeding of being an urban resident or in-migrant are generally negative. The child's being male increases the likelihood of its being breast-fed only at longer durations. The use of the pill or other contracetpives has a larger negative impact on the short duration decision, but no significant effect on the long duration choice. Having female children 7 to 12 in the home is found to increase the probability of breastfeeding beyond 4.5 months among the short duration group. Policy inplications focus on factors influencing the decisions of women to continue breastfeeding for short to moderate durations. The statistical techniques used in this paper are contained in a technical appendix.
The marriage pattern is an aspect of the social, economic and cultural conditions of a population. Recent changes taking place in Sudanese society are associated with a slight increase in the mean age at 1st marriage for females. Demographic and economic factors may be responsible for the change. The migration of Sudanese males at marriageable ages to the rich oil countries resulted in an unbalanced sex ratio which may be responsible for a marriage squeeze. The same effect is taking place as a result of high rural-urban migration. Increasing economic pressure has created a need for employment of women outside the home. This phenomenon has helped to change the role concept of both sexes and provided an alternative to early marriage. There has been a remarkable expansion of women's education in the Sudan since independence in 1956. Economic pressure has also affected the age at marriage by making marriage less feasible. Financial preparations for a marriage, in both urban and rural areas, appear to exert a significant pressure towards marital postponement. Postponement of marriage is associated with more marital stability and reductions in the amount of lost reproductive time. Also, the fertility of the women who marry late is only slightly less than that of those who marry young. Late marriers catch up with those who married young and the slight excess experienced by the young marriers takes place towards the end of the reproductive life. Changes in the Sudanese birth rate are not expected to accompany the process of development. The current level and effectiveness of birth control are not enough to affect fertility especially as it is not aimed at reducing the number of births. Reductions in the level of Sudanese fertility can be achieved only through improvement of the effectiveness of family planning programs.
