In a preregistered reanalysis of two longitudinal studies (N = 200, N = 294), we examined students’ self-regulation during exam preparation. Assessments included a baseline, twice-weekly measures over two weeks, a fourth-week questionnaire, and (in Study 2) a follow-up on exam grades. We replicated that larger repertoires of self-regulatory strategies across measurement occasions and using more strategies per occasion (polyregulation) were beneficially associated with several self-reported outcomes, such as study duration and perceived study progress. Many individual strategies showed beneficial associations with these outcomes, though some appeared detrimental. Associations with the objective longer-term outcome (exam grades) were scarce, possibly reflecting that many factors beyond self-regulation shape academic performance. We further examined potential variables associated with strategy use, focusing on reflective (perceived effectiveness) and automatic (habitual) strategy use. Perceived effectiveness was consistently associated with beneficial momentary outcomes, and predicted strategy use. Furthermore, automaticity and effectiveness ratings were often positively associated, and robustness checks confirmed that both contributed meaningfully to self-reported successful studying. Most importantly, higher levels of automaticity were not only associated with beneficial momentary outcomes, but also significantly associated with exam grades, underscoring the central role of habits in self-regulation.
Who is particularly likely to compare abilities and opinions with their romantic partner, and why? We conducted two studies examining these questions. In Study 1, we examined predictors of ability-based partner comparisons in three samples (N 1 = 276, N 2 = 279, N 3 = 288). Younger people, those with lower self-esteem, and those in shorter and less satisfying relationships were more inclined to compare abilities with their romantic partners. In Study 2 (N = 300), we replicated the associations with age, self-esteem, and relationship duration with respect to ability-based comparisons. These same individual differences also predicted the drive to assess relationship equity. In contrast to results for abilities, people in longer and more satisfying relationships were more inclined to compare opinions with their partners. Open-ended responses revealed that, in addition to universal motives of self-evaluation and self-improvement, partner comparisons serve unique functions, including assessing relationship equity, relationship trajectory, and partners' contributions. Together, these studies suggest that earlier in people's lives and relationships, they tend to compare themselves to their partners more to assess whether each member is pulling their weight; but, over time, such concerns often fade, and people instead use comparison more to learn from their partners' judgments and opinions.
Stepparents are a common presence in American families; however, stepparents' roles are poorly defined by society and unclear to stepparents themselves. Emerging research demonstrates that stepparents' experiences of role-clarity are important in predicting their well-being. The current research expanded on these findings. In a sample of 184 stepparents, we examined the role of expectation alignment in predicting role clarity and well-being across two assessments, spaced one year apart. We considered personal alignment of expectations for stepparenthood with actual experience, as well as perceived relational alignment between own expectations and stepparents' perceptions of their partners' and stepchildrens' expectations for stepparenthood. Findings replicated effects of past research demonstrating that stepparenthood role clarity predicts well-being outcomes. Findings expanded past work to demonstrate that expectation alignment, both personal and perceived relational, was associated with both role clarity and well-being over time. Role clarity mediated the connection between expectation alignment and well-being outcomes for stepparents.
Andersen's work on self-concepts advanced our understanding by engaging more complex representational forms to better understand how people perceive themselves in relation to significant others in their lives. In the years since, there have been significant advances in our understanding of relational concepts. This paper explores how work on role-governed categories may deepen our understanding of the relational self. Role-governed categories are concepts defined by the roles entities play within relational structures - such as "husband" or "wife" within a marriage - rather than by their intrinsic features. Unlike feature-based categories organized around prototypes, role-governed categories are organized around ideals. We argue that this framework offers three specific advances for relational self-theory: it replaces prototype-based with ideal-based representations of relational partners; the principle of role-filler independence illuminates how past others become internalized into the self; and embedding social identities within role-governed schemas explains how violated role expectations destabilize self-concept. We discuss implications for self-concept research, social identity, and clinical practice.
Bicultural individuals, such as migrants and members of ethnic minority groups, are frequently questioned about their identities. Although seemingly innocuous and well-intentioned, questions such as "Where are you really from?" can signal social exclusion. Identity questioning has been broadly conceptualized as a microaggression and examined as a potential stressor affecting targets' well-being. However, recent research suggests that its implications may be more complex. The present longitudinal study examined the role of identity questioning in the cognitive (i.e., bicultural identity overlap) and affective (i.e., bicultural identity affect) identity outcomes of a community sample of Chinese Americans, while exploring the mediating role of hybrid (HIS) and alternating (AIS) cultural identity styles. Data were collected over three time points at one-month intervals (N = 491, M age = 53.45, SD = 13.77). Contrary to prior findings on perceived discrimination, we found that identity questioning led to increased use of the HIS, but not of the AIS, over time. In turn, the HIS predicted greater overlap between participants' Chinese and American identities, fully mediating the effect of identity questioning on identity overlap. Results are discussed in terms of prejudice attributions and the adaptive role of the HIS in shaping responses to identity questioning.
The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a widespread shift to online learning and work, moving daily interactions with others into virtual spaces. In the current research, we examined how visibility of one's appearance shapes individuals' experiences in virtual settings. We investigated this question through the lens of Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS) - a personality processing system characterized by anxious expectations of being rejected based on one's appearance. We hypothesized that individuals with higher (vs. lower) Appearance-RS would expect more negative outcomes when their appearance was visible (vs. not) during a virtual meeting. In Study 1, college students imagined introducing themselves in an online class with their camera turned either on or off. In Study 2, adults imagined joining a virtual work meeting where they had their camera on or off. Across both studies, when participants imagined having their camera on (vs. off), those with higher (vs. lower) Appearance-RS reported lower state self-esteem, which predicted less intended engagement. Thus, anticipated visibility in virtual settings may be detrimental for those who anxiously expect to be rejected based on their looks.
Future self-continuity-the perceived connectedness between one's present and future self-has been linked to long-term motivation and goal pursuit. Yet the conditions under which future-oriented identity translates into concrete goal attainment remain unclear. This study examined whether belief in successful goal attainment mediates the association between future self-continuity and goal attainment, and whether this process is jointly conditioned by pragmatic prospection-the capacity for structured future planning-and instructional context. Using a sample of 245 M.A. students enrolled in semester-long academic courses, we tested a moderated mediation model (PROCESS Model 12). Future self-continuity predicted goal attainment both directly and indirectly through belief in successful goal attainment. Pragmatic prospection and instructional context jointly moderated the mediation process as well as the direct pathway. A significant index of moderated mediation indicated that the indirect effect varied as a function of both individual regulatory capacity and structural goal scaffolding. These findings suggest that future-oriented identity alone is insufficient for sustained behavioral progress. Its impact depends on the alignment between individual planning capacity and structured goal-engagement environments, offering a context-sensitive account of how identity-based motivation translates into action.
The current study examined the perceived believability of everyday lies told by adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults in relation to the speaker's closeness to the lie-recipient. Participants (N = 275, ages 13 - 86) reported on their lie-telling behaviors three times a day across a 7-day period, providing details on their own perceived believability of the lies and subjective closeness to the lie-recipient. Linear mixed model analyses revealed that young adults perceived their lies to be significantly more believable than middle-aged and older adults, and, across participants, perceived believability significantly decreased as subjective closeness to the lie-recipient increased. These results suggest that one's perception of lying ability is a dynamic process that can differ across age groups and social contexts (i.e. closeness with others), providing insight into everyday lies from the liar's perspective.
Political commitments reflect core aspects of social identity, shaping how individuals interact with others. Authoritarianism is one feature that influences how political commitments are enacted in social contexts, and given increases in authoritarianism in democratic nations, it has become a pressing area of study. Nonetheless, left-wing authoritarianism (LWA) remains understudied. Current evidence suggests higher-LWA individuals may rely more on heuristics and exploitation to promote conformity, but limited, ambiguous data contribute to debate about whether LWA reflects an authoritarian construct. To enhance understanding of LWA as based in urgent tendencies to compel conformity (reflective of authoritarianism), participants in two studies (total N = 903) rated the perceived utility and use of a central/systematic approach and various peripheral/heuristic tactics in persuading dissenters. As hypothesized, LWA related to reports of greater perceived utility and enhanced use of various peripheral/heuristic approaches; LWA was unrelated to perceived utility of the central/systematic approach but was negatively related to its self-reported use. Additional testing revealed relations between LWA and the ratings of peripheral/heuristic tactics were reduced upon accounting for antisocial personality, suggesting its connection to these tactics is likely reflective of antagonistic mechanisms.
When is it the "right time" to be in a relationship? Research has shown that perceptions of timing - how ready one feels for a committed relationship - could drive pro-relationship behaviors aimed at strengthening an existing relationship. Having positive and accurate perceptions of a partner's commitment readiness could then facilitate a more positive relational self associated with their partner, and better relationship maintenance processes. Using the Truth and Bias model, we examined couples' accuracy and bias in perceiving each other's commitment readiness. Given the importance of the self in shaping relational processes, we also hypothesized that self-esteem could moderate truth and bias effects concerning a partner's commitment readiness. Preliminary findings from a cross-sectional study revealed that while individuals tend to underestimate their partner's commitment readiness, they were still significantly accurate in their perceptions. They also projected their own commitment readiness onto perceptions of their partners' readiness. Finally, a significant interaction effect between own readiness and self-esteem indicated that the projection effect was stronger among individuals with higher self-esteem than among those with lower self-esteem. Future directions and limitations in self and relationships research are discussed.
Dual process theories contend that the self has at least two distinct processing modes. One prominent theory describes these modes as rational and experiential, which is a formulation that overlaps considerably with conceptual metaphors for the head (rational) and heart (experiential). Because the two processing modes operate in distinct manners, the self could, potentially, recruit processing modes in a strategic manner. Such considerations led to two studies (total N = 455) in which participants were asked to indicate how much of their self typically exists in their brain and heart areas of their bodies while performing a diverse set of daily activities. These responses permitted a calculation of brain-heart dualism, defined in terms of a within-subject correlation of self-in-brain and self-in-heart estimates across activities. Participants whose self-representations suggested a self that can move up or down within its body, in a manner conducive to context, displayed higher levels of intellectual performance (e.g. as evident in high school GPAs) as well as higher levels of experiential ability (e.g. as evident on an emotional intelligence task). The research identifies a new set of individual differences that allow individuals to match processing mode to the situation at hand.
People often consider their rank across multiple performances, which can be summarized in terms of its mean and variability. Prior work on performance variability examined evaluations of other people and was limited either by use of correlational designs or imaginal scenarios. Here we conducted two studies with high experimental realism to assess the immediate effects of performance means and variability on self-evaluations (total N = 408 college students). Participants completed social perception tests and were given manipulated feedback indicating that they generally performed above average or below average and had a consistent or inconsistent rank across tests. Performance means had a very large impact on self-evaluations, affective reactions, and predicted future performance. However, performance variability had small to negligible effects. These data suggest that people neglect the distribution or spread of performance ranks during self-evaluation (distribution neglect) and instead focus primarily on their mean rank.
In the post-pandemic era, the sense of uncertainty among Chinese college students has generally increased, further leading to the emergence of future anxiety. However, the discussion on the internal psychological mechanisms triggered by uncertainty and intervention strategies remains insufficient. In this study, two sub-studies were conducted among Chinese college students to explore the psychological mechanisms through which uncertainty triggers future anxiety and examine the role of letter-writing intervention in alleviating future anxiety caused by uncertainty. In Study 1, a questionnaire survey (N = 833) was administered to examine the mediating effect of future self-continuity on the link between uncertainty and future anxiety, utilizing a simple mediation model for analysis. In Study 2, a randomized controlled trial (N = 185) was conducted to confirm that improving future self-continuity through letter-writing can interrupt the emergence of future anxiety prompted by uncertainty. The findings of this research indicated that future self-continuity functions as a mediating factor in the relationship between uncertainty and future anxiety among college students. Additionally, engaging in letter-writing activities may act as an indirect means to alleviate future anxiety.
A person's race and ethnicity influences how they socialize their children about such topics. Yet little is known about how the growing population of Multiracial adults, who are members of multiple racial/ethnic groups, socialize their children about their ethnic/racial backgrounds. In two preregistered online studies, U.S. parents (S1: MAge = 37.85; 52.85% female; S2: MAge = 37.85; 84.21% female) responded to open-ended questions about the interactions they have/intend to have with their 3- to 18-year-old children about racial/ethnic identities. In Study 1, Multiracial parents' (n = 96) ethnic/racial socialization practices were more similar to monoracial parents of color (n = 99) than White parents (n = 138). However, Multiracial parents also showed distinguishing ethnic/racial socialization patterns: they expressed a greater number of coded socialization themes overall, and reported ethnic/racial identity multiplicity as a joy, significantly more than monoracial parents. There was also some evidence that the frequency with which Multiracial parents are perceived as racial/ethnic minority shapes their race/ethnic socialization practices. In Study 2, 209 new Multiracial parents reported their socialization practices in response to two different racial identity frames, overall replicating Study 1 findings. Our findings highlight the importance of studying Multiracial parents specifically when exploring ethnic/racial socialization, helping inform fully inclusive models of ethnic/racial socialization.
The psychological mechanisms linking attachment insecurity to social anxiety disorder (SAD) are not fully understood. We propose an empathy-based schema generalization model, positing that the association between attachment insecurity and SAD is explained by dysregulated empathy toward significant others, with these patterns generalizing to new relationships. Across four studies (N = 952) with international, Turkish, and Polish samples (including a clinical group), participants brought to mind a significant other and an acquaintance before reporting empathy toward each. For attachment anxiety, the association with SAD was sequentially mediated by higher personal distress toward a significant other and lower self-compassion. For attachment avoidance, the association was mediated by lower empathic concern toward a significant other. Crucially, these mediational pathways were specific to significant others and held after adjusting for empathy toward acquaintances. Supporting the generalization hypothesis, attachment insecurities were associated with empathy toward acquaintances indirectly, through their association with empathy toward significant others. In the clinical sample, the indirect effect of attachment avoidance on SAD via empathic concern toward a significant other was moderated by self-compassion and socioeconomic status, revealing a key boundary condition. This research illuminates how relational schemas of empathy, rooted in close bonds, are linked to social fears.
Low self-concept clarity is linked to a greater tendency to engage in appearance-based comparisons and a greater degree of internalization of societal appearance ideals, both of which contribute to body dissatisfaction. This study extends previous trait-level research by examining whether momentary fluctuations in self-concept clarity also predict these outcomes. A sample of 203 women completed trait measures of self-concept clarity, appearance comparisons, internalization of appearance ideals, and body dissatisfaction, and also participated in a five-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol, responding to surveys assessing these same constructs five times per day. Lower trait self-concept clarity was associated with more frequent appearance comparisons and greater internalization across the EMA period. Furthermore, lower momentary self-concept clarity was associated with a greater likelihood of engaging in (upward) appearance comparisons and internalization, both concurrently and at a subsequent time point. Upward appearance comparisons and momentary internalization were linked to momentary body dissatisfaction, lower positive affect, and higher negative affect. However, self-concept clarity (trait or momentary) did not moderate the impact of appearance comparisons or internalization on body dissatisfaction or affect. These findings suggest that low self-concept clarity increases vulnerability to sociocultural appearance processes, thereby increasing risk for body dissatisfaction.
