Abdominal wall repair remains challenging as conventional hernia meshes frequently fail to simultaneously provide robust mechanical support, effective anti-adhesion, and rapid tissue regeneration. To address these limitations, an asymmetric bacterial cellulose/collagen (BC/COL) membrane is developed via "biological suturing" and "in situ pore formation" strategies. By spraying collagen Pickering emulsion onto the growing BC network during Komagataeibacter xylinus fermentation, a BC-interwoven collagen layer is produced. Subsequent fermentation without further emulsion addition produces an upper layer consisting solely of BC. This in situ fermentation process integrates the collagen and "sutures" the two layers, which we aptly term "biological suturing". Upon final freeze-drying, it yields a robust bilayer structure consisting of a porous layer (BC/COL-COL) and a dense layer (BC/COL-BC). This asymmetric design enables spatial functionalization: BC/COL-BC provides robust mechanical support and effective anti-adhesion, while BC/COL-COL facilitates cell infiltration and tissue regeneration. The scaffold exhibits high tensile strength (27.4 MPa) and good biocompatibility. In vitro tests confirm high cell attachment on the BC/COL-COL side and minimal adhesion on the BC/COL-BC side, demonstrating distinct bifunctional roles. In vivo experiments indicate that the BC/COL scaffold promotes tissue regeneration more effectively than polypropylene (PP) meshes. This composite presents a promising candidate for advanced clinical hernia repair.

Composite pollution of antibiotics, microplastics, and Cu2+ poses a significant challenge to the remediation of contaminated water. Herein, a modified adsorbent (PMC) was fabricated using Ganoderma lucidum mycelium as the substrate via thermal-alkaline treatment and subsequent grafting of polyethyleneimine (PEI). SEM, TGA, FTIR, and XPS confirmed the successful grafting of PEI, which roughened the mycelium surface, increased the number of adsorption sites, and enabled effective adsorption interactions. Adsorption experiments demonstrated that under pH 6.5, 15 mg adsorbent dosage, and 30 ℃, PMC achieved removal efficiencies of 96%, 91% and 85% for tetracycline (TC), polystyrene (PS), and Cu2+ in the composite system, respectively. The adsorption fitted the Langmuir isotherm model (maximum capacities: 243, 140, and 172 mg·g-1 for TC, PS, and Cu2+, respectively) and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, indicating a spontaneous and endothermic process. Furthermore, PMC retained over 70% removal efficiency after 5 adsorption-desorption cycles and exhibited excellent biodegradability. Two-dimensional Fourier transform infrared correlation spectroscopy (2D-FTIR-COS) revealed that adsorption relied on multiple interactions (electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, etc.) and pollutant synergy: PEI’s positive surface captured anionic TC/PS; Cu2+ complexed with TC and coordinated with functional groups; mycelium’s network structure entrapped PS, collectively enhancing purification.

The extensive utilization of synthetic detergents presents a substantial threat to the global environment. Inspired by traditional practices in Asia-such as using rice-washing water for cleaning-this study develops a green, non-toxic, and surfactant-free detergent. The innovative detergent was fabricated using natural collagen extracted from delimed bovine hide trimmings as the core component, requiring no chemical modification. It forms in situ Pickering emulsions on contaminated surfaces, effectively encapsulating and removing oil stains. Interfacial desorption energy measurements indicate that the collagen detergent adsorbs irreversibly at the oil-water interface (approximately 2.2 × 107KBT). The collagen detergent achieves a comparable cleaning efficiency of up to 90% on both human skin and various material surfaces, in comparison with commercial products. More importantly, it is non-irritating to the eyes and skin and exhibits no toxicity toward cells, seeds, lettuce seedlings, and zebrafish. By combining high detergency with exceptional biocompatibility and environmental safety, this approach offers a compelling alternative to conventional surfactants. Remarkably, the detergent is produced solely from delimed bovine split trimmings, demonstrating the potential of collagen valorization for next-generation sustainable cleaning agents that align with ecological preservation and public health priorities.

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) sponges are widely utilized as wound dressings, yet they face limitations in clinical practice, particularly in addressing bacterial infection. Herein, a multifunctional composite sponge dressing is developed by incorporating collagen (COL) and a graphene oxide (GO)/BNN6 (a nitric oxide (NO) donor) assembly into a PVA matrix. The resulting GO/BNN6/PVA/COL composite sponge exhibits a three-dimensional porous network, high porosity, excellent liquid absorption, and favorable shape retention. Benefiting from these features, the composite sponge demonstrates efficient negative pressure drainage performance in vitro, achieving a drainage flux of 3515.0 mL·s−1·m−2 at 16 kPa, indicating its potential applicability for negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT). Moreover, under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, GO provides significant photothermal conversion, allowing the sponge to serve as a photothermal therapy (PTT) agent. The localized heat simultaneously triggers the controlled release of NO from BNN6, yielding a combined photothermal and NO-mediated antibacterial effect with inhibition rates exceeding 96% against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Notably, in vivo experiments demonstrate that the GO/BNN6/PVA/COL sponge under NIR irradiation effectively suppresses infection, accelerates wound closure, and promotes granulation tissue formation and skin regeneration. This work presents a versatile sponge dressing that combines the key functions required for NPWT, on-demand PTT, and gas-based antibacterial treatment, demonstrating promising potential for advanced wound management.

Psoriasis is a severe, chronic inflammatory skin disease that significantly impairs patients' quality of life and can potentially be life-threatening. However, current treatments are often limited by strong side effects, short therapeutic efficacy, and a risk of secondary tissue damage. To address these limitations, this study developed a fully biomass-based, hydro-responsive adhesive dressing with controlled tea tree oil (TTO) release for psoriasis treatment. TTO was encapsulated within collagen Pickering emulsions (COLPE) and subsequently coated onto a mycelium (MYC) film to form a TTO-releasing MYC/COLPE composite patch. The optimal TTO concentration was determined to be 8%, selected based on a trade-off among encapsulation efficiency (75% at 6% TTO vs reasonably reduced to 55% at 8% TTO), droplet size uniformity (6.5 μm), and biocompatibility (cell viability >80%). The COLPE effectively encapsulated TTO and enabled sustained release. Upon hydration, the COLPE layer became adhesive, enabling the film to firmly adhere to the skin. Meanwhile, the hydrated MYC/COLPE dressing demonstrated a nearly fourfold enhancement in toughness from 2.5 MJ/m3 in its dry state to 10.0 MJ/m3 in its hydrated state, accompanied by improved flexibility, thereby ensuring robust mechanical support and excellent skin conformability. Antibacterial tests revealed over 90% inhibition rates against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Biocompatibility tests indicated cell viability above 80% and a hemolysis rate below 5%, confirming favorable biosafety. In a mouse model of psoriasis, the MYC/COLPE film effectively alleviated psoriatic skin lesions. Overall, this work presents a promising therapeutic strategy for psoriasis and offers a paradigm for integrating fungal MYC and collagen in the design of functional wound dressings.

Natural polymer-based hernia patches exhibit biocompatibility and biodegradability compared with non-degradable polypropylene (PP) meshes; however, their clinical translation has been severely hampered by inadequate mechanical strength under wet conditions. To address these challenges, we developed a composite membrane (COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-M) via a simple fabrication strategy that primarily involves sequential soaking mineralization and multi-point cross-linking. Under wet conditions, the tensile strength, fracture energy, and burst strength of the COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-M were enhanced by factors of 7.48, 22.84, and 2.77, respectively, relative to those of pure collagen membrane (COL). Moreover, the swelling rate of COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-M decreased by 35.7% compared to COL. Biocompatibility and hemocompatibility assays confirmed its non-toxicity and suitability for tissue regeneration. In vitro degradation tests revealed a residual mass of 58.27% after 42 days, ensuring sustained mechanical support while enabling complete degradation to prevent long-term complications. In vivo experiments validated its ability to promote tissue repair, minimize inflammation, and stimulate angiogenesis. Significantly, during a long-term post-operative observation (29 weeks), COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-M was found to be effective in reducing intra-abdominal adhesions. With its tunable wet-state mechanical performance, biodegradability, and excellent biocompatibility, the COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-M emerges as a promising biomaterial, holding significant potential for the treatment of abdominal wall defects.

Corneal transplantation remains the most effective therapeutic intervention for corneal blindness. The global crisis of donor cornea shortage has catalyzed extensive research initiatives in the field of corneal tissue engineering, with collagen-based materials gaining particular attention as viable alternatives for corneal repair and regeneration. Regrettably, collagen membranes are substantially constrained by their inherent limitations in both tensile strength and fatigue resistance. To address these challenges, this study introduces a novel collagen-based corneal repair material (COL-PPR) exhibiting unique mechanical self-reinforcement characteristics under cyclic tensile stress. This breakthrough was accomplished through the strategic incorporation of a sliding-effect pseudopolyrotaxane (PPR) as a flexible crosslinker, synthesized from polyethylene glycol and carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin. During cyclic tensile loading exceeding 5000 cycles, the progressive alignment of collagen fibers was facilitated by the flexible cross-linking interactions between PPR and collagen fibers, thereby conferring remarkable mechanical self-reinforcement capabilities (reinforcement rate = 1758%). In vivo lamellar keratoplasty experiments validated the remarkable regenerative capacity of COL-PPR, demonstrating its efficacy in facilitating rapid reconstruction of both corneal epithelium and stromal layers. These compelling findings underscore the remarkable potential of cyclodextrin-based PPR as sliding cross-linkers, demonstrating intriguing potential for developing innovative corneal repair biomaterials.

The valorization of chrome leather shavings (CLS) is essential for establishing a circular economy in the leather industry. To address the inherent limitations of traditional dry-process regenerated leather, namely poor flexural endurance and inadequate thermal-wet comfort, this study proposes a synergistic "one-stone-two-birds" strategy. Specifically, hollow polyester fibers (HPF) were introduced to form a multiscale composite fibrous network with CLS, bonded uniformly by modified starch (MS). The effects of HPF and MS content on microstructure, interfacial bonding, and macroscopic performance were systematically investigated. Results demonstrated that an optimal formulation of 2 wt% HPF and 13.3 wt% MS (relative to total fiber mass) effectively balances structural robustness and wearability. Compared to the unreinforced control sample, the composite achieved an 8-fold increase in dynamic flexural resistance, exceeding 80,000 cycles. Notably, the incorporation of HPF introduced interconnected interfacial micropores within the fibrous network, significantly enhancing water vapor permeability (from 257.9 to 493.72 g/(m2 & sdot;24 h)) and air permeability while maintaining adequate mechanical strength (tensile strength: 1.98 MPa). The adequate hygrothermal comfort and flexural durability of this ecofriendly composite render it suitable for high-end footwear and automotive interiors, providing a scalable technical pathway for the high-value utilization of solid leather waste.

Abdominal hernia repair is essential for restoring abdominal wall integrity and preventing visceral protrusion; however, current patch materials struggle to reconcile mechanical durability with biological integration, giving rise to a fundamental contradiction between long-term support and degradation-regeneration. Inspired by fish scales, we developed a biomass-based composite patch (COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-G) via collagen self-assembly, biomimetic gradient mineralization, and multi-point cross-linking (EDC/NHS). This strategy integrates layer-by-layer blade-coating and controlled phosphate deposition to create a mineral gradient emulating natural fish scales. Mechanical testing revealed that COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-G exhibited superior comprehensive mechanical properties (tensile strength: 5.02 ± 0.40 MPa, burst strength: 597.17 ± 11.49 kPa) and enhanced flexibility (twist angle: 1800°) compared to unmineralized (COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-C) and pure collagen membrane (COL) materials. Notably, COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-G maintained a high mechanical strength (tensile strength: 1.27 ± 0.18 MPa) after 7 days of enzymatic degradation in a simulated physiological condition, thereby offering stable support during tissue repair processes. In vitro evaluations indicated that COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-G was more conducive to cell proliferation and regeneration than PP mesh. In vivo animal experiments demonstrated that COL/γ-PGA/CNF/CS-G effectively promoted tissue repair and regeneration while reducing the formation of visceral adhesions. These findings underscore that the biomimetic flexible armor-like biomass-based patch provides a facile and effective strategy for abdominal wall hernia repair.

Dural defects can trigger severe complications such as brain herniation and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage. Poreless structures like curing sealants are effective in preventing CSF leakage in dural defects but are often biologically inert. Here, we report a dura-inspired collagen hydrogel (DICH) consisting of dense-porous heterogeneous bilayers fabricated via a dual-channel freeze casting (abbreviated as Freezing-While-Lifting, FWL), which enables biocompatibility without compromising CSF sealing. The dense layer (DL) is formed through directional collagen molecular self-assembly followed by cross-linking, while the porous layer (PL) originates from collagen Pickering emulsion-templated self-assembly without cross-linking. By tuning collagen concentration and cross-linking density, the DL achieves optimized mechanical strength, whereas increasing the emulsification shear rate enhances pore interconnectivity and porosity in the PL. Compared with dense patches, DICH effectively prevents CSF leakage while promoting tissue compatibility and a minimal inflammatory response. At day 28, implantation studies in a rat model show histocompatibility comparable to that of the commercial DuraGen membrane, suggesting its potential as a dural substitute. This work establishes a facile biomimetic strategy for constructing dense-porous hydrogels with potential applications in tissue engineering.

Negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) has proven effective in promoting wound healing. However, developing an NPWT sponge dressing that integrates good biocompatibility, mechanical stability under physiological conditions, and robust antibacterial properties remains challenging. In this study, a multifunctional graphene oxide/polyvinyl alcohol/collagen (GO/PVA/COL) composite sponge was prepared through a low-temperature foaming process. The introduction of GO significantly improved the mechanical properties of the composite sponge (maximum compressive stress = 20.2 kPa). Cyclic and long-term compression tests confirmed its excellent structural recovery in the wet state (permanent deformation rate 1.33% upon 0.05% GO). In aquatic environments, the composite sponge maintained stable performance under negative pressure suction up to 24 kPa, demonstrating high drainage efficiency. Moreover, GO endowed the composite sponge with a unique photothermal effect, enabling it to achieve inhibition rates exceeding 96% against both Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) under NIR irradiation. With the help of the photothermal effect, the composite sponge can effectively promote the repair of ulcerative wounds caused by infection. Additionally, the composite sponge displayed favorable in vitro biodegradability and cell compatibility. These findings highlight the potential of the GO/PVA/COL composite sponge as a novel NPWT dressing and provide a promising strategy for developing high-performance multifunctional wound therapy materials.

Composite pollution of antibiotics, microplastics, and heavy metals poses a severe threat to aquatic environments, while conventional adsorbents often suffer from low efficiency and secondary pollution. Herein, a green polyethyleneimine (PEI)-modified Ganoderma lucidum mycelium adsorbent (PMC) was fabricated via thermal-alkali pretreatment, PEI grafting, and glutaraldehyde crosslinking. Comprehensive characterizations (SEM, TGA, FTIR, and XPS) confirmed the successful grafting of PEI, which increased the surface roughness of the mycelium, enriched active adsorption sites, and improved thermal stability. Under optimal conditions (pH 6.5, 0.75 g·L−1, 30 ℃), PMC exhibited high removal efficiencies in a ternary system: 96% for tetracycline (TC, 100 mg·L−1), 91% for polystyrene (PS, 10 mg·L−1), and 85% for copper ions (Cu2+, 50 mg·L−1). The experimental adsorption data were well described by the Langmuir isotherm (maximum adsorption capacities: 243, 140, 172 mg·g−1 for TC, PS, Cu2+) and pseudo-second-order kinetic model, indicating a spontaneous and endothermic process. PMC retained over 70% removal efficiency after five adsorption–desorption cycles and exhibited excellent biodegradability. The adsorption mechanisms primarily involved electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, chelating coordination, pore filling, and synergistic effects among the pollutants. This study develops a green, biodegradable biomass adsorbent for synergistic removal of antibiotic-microplastic-heavy metal composite pollution, enriching multi-pollutant adsorption theory and offering a new remediation strategy for complex polluted water, with promising scientific and practical prospects.

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) sponges are widely utilized as wound dressings, yet they face limitations in clinical practice, particularly in addressing bacterial infection. Herein, a multifunctional composite sponge dressing is developed by incorporating collagen (COL) and a graphene oxide (GO)/BNN6 (a nitric oxide (NO) donor) assembly into a PVA matrix. The resulting GO/BNN6/PVA/COL composite sponge exhibits a three-dimensional porous network, high porosity, excellent liquid absorption, and favorable shape retention. Benefiting from these features, the composite sponge demonstrates efficient negative pressure drainage performance in vitro, achieving a drainage flux of 3515.0 mL·s-1·m-2 at 16 kPa, indicating its potential applicability for negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT). Moreover, under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, GO provides significant photothermal conversion, allowing the sponge to serve as a photothermal therapy (PTT) agent. The localized heat simultaneously triggers the controlled release of NO from BNN6, yielding a combined photothermal and NO-mediated antibacterial effect with inhibition rates exceeding 96% against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Notably, in vivo experiments demonstrate that the GO/BNN6/PVA/COL sponge under NIR irradiation effectively suppresses infection, accelerates wound closure, and promotes granulation tissue formation and skin regeneration. This work presents a versatile sponge dressing that combines the key functions required for NPWT, on-demand PTT, and gas-based antibacterial treatment, demonstrating promising potential for advanced wound management.

The demand for biomaterials with bi-or multi-layered structures, such as cartilage scaffolds, bionic skin, and asymmetrical Janus repair patches, is rapidly increasing. However, existing manufacturing methods face challenges in simultaneously fabricating bilayer structures and ensuring strong interfacial bonding. Here, we present a synergistic strategy, "Freezing-While-Lifting" (FWL), for fabricating bi-layered materials without the need for external adhesives. Inspired by natural non-equilibrium liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) observed in river-sea junctions, FWL is synchronously accomplished by using a baffle to regulate the coupling process between non-equilibrium LLPS and freeze casting. Using collagen as a model material, we demonstrate the versatility and stability of FWL in producing bi-layered scaffolds. This approach is also applicable to common water-soluble polymers (such as PVA, PEG, and CMCS) and even oil-in-water collagen Pickering emulsions. Our results highlight that FWL provides a controllable platform for advanced bilayer material design, overcoming challenges in layer integration and offering new insights for the development of functional biomaterials.

In abdominal wall defect repair, current mainstream polypropylene (PP)-based patches face challenges such as chronic inflammation, mismatched degradation rates, and insufficient anti-deformation properties. While natural biomaterials offer good biocompatibility and degradability, their clinical application is limited by insufficient mechanical strength. To overcome this challenge, we engineered a chitosan (CS) and cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-reinforced collagen membrane. This design leveraged dual polysaccharide functionalities: CNF provided nanoscale reinforcement, while CS enabled multi-point cross-linking with collagen, synergistically enhancing the membrane's structural stability. To further enhance performance, a sequential approach involving the layer-by-layer blade-coating and induced assembly was employed, producing stacked and oriented lamellar structures. The optimized membrane exhibited raised tensile strength (49.00 MPa) and fracture energy (121.22 MJ/m3), prolonged degradation period (52.7 % weight retention at 28 days), and reduced swelling rate (135.5 %). In vitro biocompatibility assays confirmed the material's non-cytotoxicity and excellent blood compatibility. Moreover, in vivo rat abdominal defect models demonstrated superior tissue regeneration, minimized inflammation, and effective mechanical support when using the developed membrane compared to PP meshes and pure collagen membranes (COL). These findings highlight the potential of this green strategy to provide a balanced solution for hernia repair, addressing both mechanical and biological requirements.

Collagen, as the principal structural component of the cornea, has emerged as a promising biomaterial for artificial corneal owing to its excellent biocompatibility and degradability. However, the mechanical properties of current collagen membrane cannot match the requirements of artificial corneal materials. Inspired by the hierarchical lamellar organization of native corneal stromal collagen, a biomimetic collagen-based corneal repair material was designed via a "killing two birds with one stone" strategy. In this strategy, carboxymethyl-β-cyclodextrin (CM-β-CD) was incorporated into the collagen, serving dual functions: regulating the in vitro self-assembly process of collagen molecules and establishing multiple covalent cross-linking sites within the network. Concurrently, controlled external shear forces were applied to induce anisotropic alignment of collagen fibers, effectively replicating the highly organized structural hierarchy characteristic of native corneal stromal tissue. The resulting membrane exhibited a 67% enhancement in tensile strength (0.52 MPa) compared to pure collagen membranes. Notably, in vivo lamellar keratoplasty evaluations revealed accelerated tissue regeneration, achieving complete re-epithelialization within 14 days versus 28 days for controls. These findings establish the material's potential as an advanced artificial corneal for tissue engineering applications.

Aspartic acid (ASP) and its derivatives are eco-friendly and cost-effective scale inhibitors but exhibit limited corrosion inhibition in acidic media. To enhance their performance against acid corrosion, a facile, purification-free one-pot aqueous reaction was developed to synthesize an L-ASPME/GA hybrid inhibitor from L-aspartic acid β-methyl ester (L-ASPME) and glutaraldehyde (GA). The resulting inhibitor solution was directly introduced into a 0.5 M H2SO4 pickling solution to achieve synergistic corrosion inhibition for Q235B steel. The corrosion inhibition performance was systematically evaluated using weight loss tests, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and contact angle measurements, with temperature effects also assessed. The results demonstrate that the L-ASPME/GA hybrid, particularly at molar ratios of 2:3–4:1, achieves 90.7%–96.1% inhibition efficiency, significantly outperforming L-ASPME or GA alone. Notably, the 2:3 L-ASPME/GA hybrid shows superior high-temperature acid corrosion resistance versus single components. This synergistic effect is attributed to a co-adsorption mechanism, forming a compactly oriented, thermally robust film driven by hydrogen-bonding networks, Fe2+ coordination, and electrostatic attraction. These findings offer a practical strategy to improve the acid corrosion resistance of ASP–like inhibitors.

Recently, biomacromolecules have received considerable attention in hemostatic materials. Collagen, an ideal candidate for hemostatic sponges due to its involvement in the clotting process, has been facing challenges in extraction from raw materials, which is time-consuming, expensive, and limited by cultural and religious restrictions associated with traditional livestock and poultry sources. To address these issues, this study explored a new shortcut method that using wild Halocynthia roretzi (HR), a marine fouling organism, as a raw material for developing HR collagen fiber sponge (HRCFs), which employed urea to disrupt hydrogen bonds between collagen fiber aggregates. This method simplifies traditional complex manufacturing processes while utilized marine waste, thus achieving dual green in terms of raw materials and manufacturing processes. FTIR results confirmed that the natural triple-helical structure of collagen was preserved. HRCFs exhibit a blood absorption ratio of 2000–3500 %, attributed to their microporous structure, as demonstrated by kinetic studies following a capillary model. Remarkably, the cytotoxicity and hemolysis ratio of HRCFs are negligible. Furthermore, during in vivo hemostasis tests using rabbit ear and kidney models, HRCFs significantly reduce blood loss and shorten hemostasis time compared to commercial gelatin sponge and gauze, benefiting from the capillary effect and collagen's coagulation activity. This study provides new insights into the design of collagen-based hemostatic biomaterials, especially in terms of both raw material and green manufacturing processes.

The extraction of collagen for packaging films typically requires a time-consuming process and the use of substantial chemicals. Herein, we present a full life cycle green preparation method for rapidly producing collagen-based food packaging films using Halocynthia roretzi (HR), a collagen-rich marine organism, as raw material. We first prepared the micro/nano-sized collagen fibers from HR tissue by utilizing urea and sonication as effective hydrogen-bond breakers. Subsequently, the collagen fiber was rapidly fabricated into a film through vacuum filtration. The resulting collagen fiber film (CFF) exhibited a uniform and dense surface, along with good tensile properties, water resistance, and biodegradability. In addition, the deposition of chitosan (CS) on the surface of CFF resulted in a remarkable preservation effect for both strawberries and pork. This full life cycle preparation method for collagen-based films provides a promising and innovative approach to the sustainable preparation of food packaging films.

The effect of carbohydrates on collagen self-assembly behavior has been widely investigated because of their regulation on collagen fibrogenesis in vivo. In this paper, β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) was selected as an external disturbance to explore its intrinsic regulating mechanism on collagen self-assembly. The results of fibrogenesis kinetics indicated that β-CD had a bilateral regulation on collagen self-aggregation process, which was closely related to the content of β-CD: collagen protofibrils with low β-CD content were less aggregated compared to collagen protofibrils with high β-CD content. However, typical periodic stripes of ~67 nm on collagen fibrils were observed from transmission electron microscope (TEM), indicating that β-CD did not disturb the lateral arrangement of collagen molecules to form a 1/4 staggered structure. Correspondingly, the degree of aggregation of collagen self-assembled fibrils was closely correlated with the addition of β-CD content, as confirmed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and atomic force microscope (AFM). In addition, collagen/β-CD fibrillar hydrogel had good thermal stability and cytocompatibility. These results provide a better understanding of how to construct a structurally reliable collagen/β-CD fibrillar hydrogel as a biomedical material in a β-CD-regulated environment.