Whiteflies pose a major threat to crops worldwide, primarily because they transmit begomoviruses with which they have evolved intricate mutualistic relationships. The mutualisms are known to exacerbate whitefly invasions and drive widespread plant virus pandemics. Yet, certain plant genotypes are able to resist both the whiteflies and the viruses and a good understanding of the underlying mechanisms could help to develop more resistant varieties. Here, we show that the viruliferous whitefly Bemisia tabaci induces an early and strong release of the sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene in cultivated tomato plants. This volatile functions as an airborne signal that primes neighboring conspecifics for enhanced resistance to begomoviruses, including Tomato yellow leaf curl virus and Papaya leaf curl China virus. These results challenge the view that whitefly-induced volatile emissions primarily benefit the insect vector, suggesting instead that the plant prioritizes antiviral defense over antiherbivore resistance. β-Caryophyllene exposure was also found to enhance the emission of β-Caryophyllene, methyl salicylate and β-myrcene upon whitefly attack, increasing plant attractiveness to the parasitoid Encarsia formosa. Using a β-caryophyllene overproducing transgenic tomato line and synthetic β-caryophyllene dispensers, we confirmed that β-caryophyllene exposure primes antipathogen defenses in tomato plants and confers improved plant fitness under sustained infestation by viruliferous whiteflies. Importantly, this defense priming is genotype-specific and limited to certain tomato cultivars, suggesting that β-caryophyllene-mediated resistance can be harnessed through selective breeding. Our findings reveal a volatile-based mechanism by which tomato plants may counteract the virus-vector mutualism, offering promising avenues for integrated pest and disease management.

Microbial symbionts significantly influence insect ecology, particularly in mediating host-pathogen interactions that regulate pest population dynamics in agro-ecosystems, such as those involving the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri), a vector of Huanglongbing. This study investigates how Beauveria bassiana infection alters the cuticular microbiota of D. citri and identifies bacterial symbionts that modulate host susceptibility to the fungus. Using 16S rRNA sequencing, we observed significant shifts in the diversity and composition of the cuticular bacterial community following B. bassiana infection. Two cuticle-derived bacterial strains, Bacillus albus (CQC-1) and Shouchella miscanthi (CQC-32), isolated from the cuticle, exhibited potent antifungal activity, reducing B. bassiana spore germination by 94.53% and 73.50%, respectively, and increasing psyllid survival under fungal challenge to 71.3% and 65.2% compared with 16.4% in controls. These findings underscore the ecological role of cuticular symbionts in shaping host-pathogen dynamics and suggest their potential for integration into sustainable pest management strategies for citrus agro-ecosystems. They also clarify how cuticular bacterial communities respond to entomopathogenic fungi and influence insect-pathogen interactions, with broader implications for microbial ecology and host-microbe coevolution.

The tripartite interaction among entomopathogenic fungi, host plants, and phytophagous arthropods constitutes a pivotal research frontier in sustainable agriculture. Although previous studies have reported impaired fitness of phloemfeeding pests on fungal-endophytic plants, the underlying phytochemical mechanisms remain poorly characterized. This study systematically investigates Beauveria bassiana-induced systemic anti-herbivore effects in tomato through secondary metabolite reprogramming targeting Bemisia tabaci. Morphometric analysis revealed significant reductions in body length and mass of female whiteflies feeding on root-drenched tomatoes (vs. control). Transgenerational analysis revealed progressive declines in female fecundity (up to 31% reduction) in F1 and F2 generations. Targeted metabolomic profiling identified 30 significantly accumulated flavonols in phloem exudates of fungal-treated plants, including 21 quercetin glycosides showing 2.08-7.76-fold increases (e.g., Quercetin-3-O-robinobioside, Quercetin-5-O-beta-D-glucoside, Quercetin-7-O-glucoside). Coordinated upregulation of core biosynthetic genes (PAL, 4CL, C4H, CHS, CHI, F3'H, F3H, FLS, UGT) confirmed systemic activation of the flavonol pathway. Our results demonstrate that B. bassiana root drenching induces phloem-specific accumulation of quercetin derivatives via transcriptional reprogramming, effectively compromising whitefly development and reproductive fitness. This study provides novel mechanistic insights into fungal endophyte-mediated enhancement of plant defenses against phloem-feeding insects.

This study utilized a mealybug-parasitoid system to assess the influence of climate change on the life cycle of the invasive pest Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Pseudococcidae) and its native parasitoid Aenasius bambawalei Hayat (Encyrtidae) across a temperature range of 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, and 40°C. Elevated temperatures (30°C, 35°C, 40°C) significantly impacted the nymphal development period and overall lifespan of both male and female P. solenopsis. Conversely, the survival rate of immature stages was highest at 30°C. Additionally, P. solenopsis exhibited increased fecundity at 30°C, with a significantly shorter pre-oviposition duration and the longest post-oviposition period at this temperature. The parasitoid A. bambawalei demonstrated significantly higher parasitism rates at 30°C and 35°C, with increased percentages of parasitoid emergence and female parasitoids observed at 30°C compared to other temperatures. This study revealed that elevated temperatures negatively affected the development and survival of the invasive pest P. solenopsis and diminished the efficacy of its native parasitoid A. bambawalei. However, the suitable temperature range for the native parasitoid species (30°C to 35°C) was broader compared to that of the invasive pest species (30°C), indicating that A. bambawalei is better adapted to a wider range of temperatures than P. solenopsis. Future research directions should encompass the investigation of potential adaptive mechanisms of P. solenopsis to fluctuating temperature regimes. Additionally, it is imperative to explore strategies to bolster the resilience of A. bambawalei under the influence of escalating temperatures, thereby ensuring the efficacy of biological control measures in the face of climate change.

LED-based trapping may improve whitefly management, but light conditions that attract pests may also affect beneficial predators. This study evaluated how wavelength, irradiance, and temperature influence the phototactic behavior of Bemisia tabaci Middle East-Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) and its predator Serangium japonicum (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Adults were tested in Y-tube assays across multiple wavelength–irradiance combinations at 25 ± 1 °C, followed by temperature-dependent experiments at 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C under selected settings. B. tabaci MEAM1 consistently showed strong positive phototaxis. At irradiances of 100, 200, 400, 600, and 800 µW cm−2, positive phototaxis was highest under 480 nm light, whereas at 1000 µW cm−2, it was highest under 520 nm light. For S. japonicum, negative phototaxis was highest under 440 nm at 200 µW cm−2 and under 400 nm at 600, 800, and 1000 µW cm−2, and this avoidance weakened as temperature increased. Under a strict predator-safe criterion, 400 nm at 600 µW cm−2 was the best coordinated setting at 20–30 °C, whereas 440 nm at 600 µW cm−2 was the best strict predator-safe setting at 35 °C. These results indicate that selective LED trapping should be deployed as a temperature-aware strategy rather than as a single fixed setting. The findings provide a basis for improving the compatibility of physical and biological control in B. tabaci management.

RNA interference (RNAi) serves as a crucial tool for gene function research and pest control. Nevertheless, its application in lepidopteran insects is restricted by the low efficiency of gene silencing. Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), a globally-distributed polyphagous agricultural pest, has developed multiple strategies to resist control measures. This situation highlights the urgent need for innovative strategies to promote functional genomics and molecular target characterization studies. In this study, a novel cuticular protein SlCP was identified, which is vital for epidermal development and larval survival. Silencing of SlCP gave rise to epidermal contraction, a reduction in body size, a decrease in feed intake, and larval mortality. To address the problem of low RNAi efficiency, imidazole-modified graphene quantum dots (IGQDs) were utilized as nanocarriers for the delivery of dsSlCP. IGQD mediated delivery led to a 4.65-fold greater reduction in SlCP transcript levels compared with naked double-stranded RNA and elevated larval mortality from 38.00% to 56.00%. These findings establish that SlCP functions in epidermal development and present a nanomaterial-assisted strategy that enhances RNAi delivery efficacy in S. litura.

BACKGROUND:The rapid evolution of insecticide resistance in the whitefly Bemisia tabaci underscores an urgent need for integrated pest management strategies that prioritize biological control. Aphelinid parasitoids such as Encarsia formosa and Eretmocerus hayati are key natural enemies of B. tabaci. However, their biocontrol efficacy remains highly temperature-dependent, raising concerns given current climate warming predications. Here, we examined the physiological and molecular responses of B. tabaci and its two aphelinid parasitoids across a thermal gradient (20-35 °C). Their development, survival, antioxidant activity, energy reserves and transcriptomic profiles were assessed, with emphasis on comparisons between optimal (26 °C) and stressful (32 °C) conditions. RESULTS:Our results revealed a narrow thermal optimum at 26 °C for B. tabaci development and survival. En. formosa exhibited faster development at higher temperatures but suffered a sharp decline in survival above 32 °C. By contrast, Er. hayati maintained high survival and developmental stability up to 32 °C; outperforming the other two species at 35 °C. Longevities decreased for all three species as temperature increased. Under heat stress, species-specific changes in antioxidant defense and metabolism were observed. These findings were supported by transcriptome data, which highlighted differential expression of genes involved in oxidative stress, energy metabolism and heat shock response. These molecular patterns clarify the physiological basis for divergent thermal tolerance observed among the different insects. CONCLUSION:Our findings reveal distinct thermal tolerance limits and adaptive strategies between B. tabaci and its parasitoids. These divergent physiological responses provide molecular ecological insights into thermal adaptation in a tri-trophic system, with important implications for optimizing biological control under changing climatic conditions. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri, ACP) is the primary vector of citrus huanglongbing and exhibits positive phototactic behavior. Octopamine (OA) is a critical neuromodulator of diverse insect behaviors, yet its regulatory mechanism in ACP phototactic behavior remains largely uncharacterized. In this study, three core genes of the OA signaling pathway in ACP were identified and characterized: the biosynthetic enzyme DcTβH and two β-adrenergic-like OA receptors (DcOctβ1R, DcOctβ2R). All three genes exhibited a U-shaped developmental expression pattern and high transcript abundance in the head, suggesting potential involvement in the early nymphal and adult stages and essential roles in central nervous system. Pharmacology assays revealed that DcOctβ1R activation by OA and tyramine induced cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) accumulation, with agonists and antagonists exerting differential effects on its activity. In contrast, no cAMP response was observed in cells expressing DcOctβ2R regardless of ligand treatment. Combined RNA interference and behavioral assays demonstrated that silencing DcTβH or DcOctβ1R significantly impairs ACP phototactic behavior. These findings revealed that the OA signaling positively regulates phototactic behavior via DcOctβ1R in ACP. This study enhances the understanding of OA-mediated phototactic behavior in agricultural pests and lays a foundation for exploring the molecular mechanisms of insect behaviors.

The ecological adaptations of insect pests, such as multi-niche colonization and physiological resistance to conventional chemicals, pose severe challenges to the sustainable production of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). The tobacco whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), and the sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius (Coleoptera: Brentidae), form a highly destructive, spatially separated pest complex. In this study, we evaluated the dual-niche pathogenicity of a Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) isolate, BbCF-2, generated via spaceflight mutagenesis, against C. formicarius and B. tabaci under controlled laboratory conditions. The mutated strain exhibited enhanced colony expansion and a high sporulation capacity (2.72 × 108 conidia/mL). Bioassays revealed that BbCF-2 possesses significantly increased virulence compared to the wild-type strain, capable of overcoming the distinct physiological and physical barriers of both targeted pests. Against the highly sclerotized subterranean C. formicarius adults, BbCF-2 achieved 92.68% mortality at 15 days post-inoculation at 1 × 108 conidia/mL, with an LC50 of 8.452 × 103 conidia/mL and an LT50 of 6.305 days. Concurrently, against the canopy-dwelling B. tabaci, the isolate demonstrated rapid lethal mycosis with an LT50 of 6.718 days, effectively reducing the adult vector population prior to their typical dispersal timeframe. These results demonstrate that the spaceflight-mutated BbCF-2 strain exhibits broad pathogenicity. By simultaneously targeting both foliar and soil-dwelling pests, this single-agent biological control strategy shows potential for integrated pest management, pending greenhouse and field evaluation.

Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis parasitizes the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri, the primary insect vector responsible for transmitting Huanglongbing (HLB), a severe citrus disease. Screening of appropriate reference genes is a critical prerequisite for reliable RT-qPCR analysis, which is essential for investigating the functions of target genes in D. aligarhensis across diverse experimental conditions. However, to date, no validated reference genes have been reported for this species. This study assessed seven housekeeping genes in D. aligarhensis under six conditions (developmental stage, body tissue, population, temperature, diet, and starvation) using five stability algorithms (geNorm, BestKeeper, NormFinder, RefFinder, and ∆Ct). The results identified the most suitable reference genes for specific experimental conditions: EIF5A and RPL32 for the developmental stage; RPL13 and H3 for population comparisons; RPS6 and GAPDH for different feeding diets; RPL32 and RPS6 for starvation; RPL7A and RPS6 for different body tissues (head, thorax, abdomen) and temperature gradients (5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, 35 °C). Furthermore, the expression profiles of HSP70 were markedly different when normalized to the most versus the least stable reference genes across body tissues, diets, starvation durations, and temperatures. Our findings establish the first set of RT-qPCR reference genes for D. aligarhensis, providing a useful foundation for functional genomics research on this biological control agent.

Insect vectors often evolve disease tolerance to sustain fitness while harboring high pathogen loads, a strategy critical for the transmission of persistent pathogens. However, the regulatory networks that coordinate the physiological trade-offs required for this tolerant state remain largely unknown. Here, we identify the juvenile hormone (JH)-regulated ribosomal protein DcRPS25 as a critical mediator of pathogen tolerance in the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, the vector of the devastating citrus Huanglongbing pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas). Mechanistically, we show that CLas infection exploits the host endocrine system to elevate JH signaling, which in turn transcriptionally upregulates DcRPS25. Acting as a downstream effector, the JH-driven accumulation of DcRPS25 suppresses reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent immune activation. Simultaneously, it sustains essential host translation for reproductive fitness, thereby establishing an immunocompromised yet high-fitness niche that is permissive for CLas proliferation. Disruption of this axis collapses tolerance: DcRPS25 knockdown reduces CLas burden but paradoxically compromises host survival under infection. Leveraging this mechanism, we engineer a chitosan-based dsRNA nanopesticide targeting DcRPS25. This formulation effectively suppresses vector populations and blocks pathogen transmission without harming beneficial insects. Our findings unveil a novel "Endocrine-Ribosome-Immunity" axis underlying vector competence and demonstrate the translational potential of disrupting tolerance mechanisms for sustainable disease management.

Heavy metal pollution has become a critical concern in agricultural ecosystems driven by a complex matrix of industrial practices, high-input fertilizers, metal-based agrochemicals, and wastewater irrigation. While the previous literature typically highlights general physiological symptoms of heavy metal stress, this review provides a novel, comprehensive framework that bridges three independent pillars: specific industrial applications dictating elemental pathway, localizes active root-zone transport kinetics, and an engineering-based evaluation of emerging remediation strategies. We systematically synthesized literature from 2000 to 2026 across major databases (WoS, PubMed and Google Scholar), applying strict inclusion criteria based on data validation, experimental reproducibility, and mechanistic depth. We examine the geochemical behavior, cellular toxicity, and plant resilience mechanics of seven priority elements like cadmium, lead, arsenic, aluminum, mercury, chromium and molybdenum. Rather than merely reiterating superficial visual damage like chlorosis or stunted growth, we focus on physiological and molecular root causes of phytotoxicity, including the structural hijacking of essential nutrient networks, intracellular reduction cascades and organelle-specific oxidative disruption. This review also discussed the discovery of specialized, energy-dependent eukaryotic transport mechanisms like ABC transporters and a comparative operational blueprint evaluating physical-chemical conventional remediation techniques against advanced in situ and ex situ biotechnological approaches, including biochar assistance, microbial engineering, rhizosphere synergies, and engineered nanomaterials. By systematically linking industrial source dynamics with cellular toxicological mechanisms and field-scale engineering feasibility, this review establishes an actionable roadmap for future genetic, agronomic, and management interventions aimed at securing global food.

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), the Asian citrus psyllid, threatens global citrus production by transmitting Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, the causal agent of Huanglongbing (HLB), a destructive disease causing severe yield losses. This study evaluated the ant species Pheidole parva Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) as a biological control agent against D. citri. Using morphological identification and mitochondrial COI gene sequencing, P. parva was confirmed as a dominant psyllid predator. Behavioral observations revealed a preference for preying on early nymphal instars (first to third) over late nymphs and adults. Functional response modeling showed a Holling Type II pattern, where predation rate increased with prey density but plateaued due to handling time constraints. Additionally, search efficiency decreased with rising ant density, aligning with the Hassell-Varley model and indicating intraspecific foraging interference. These findings highlight P. parva's efficacy in suppressing D. citri populations, particularly HLB-transmission-critical nymphs. By elucidating ant-psyllid interaction dynamics via ecological models, this research supported integrating P. parva into sustainable pest management. Further studies on field deployment and ecological compatibility are recommended to maximize its predatory potential, mitigate HLB impacts, and enhance citrus production resilience. The findings provided empirical support for using P. parva in integrated pest management programs against D. citri.

The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci is a cryptic species complex in which one member, Middle East-Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) has invaded globally. After invading large countries like Australia, China, and the USA, MEAM1 spread rapidly across each country. In contrast, our analysis of MEAM1 in India showed a very different pattern. Despite the detection of MEAM1 being contemporaneous with invasions in Australia, the USA, and China, MEAM1 has not spread widely and instead remains restricted to the southern regions. An assessment of Indian MEAM1 genetic diversity showed a level of diversity equivalent to that found in its presumed home range and significantly higher than that expected across the invaded range. The high level of diversity and restricted distribution raises the prospect that its home range extends into India. Similarly, while the levels of diversity in Australia and the USA conformed to that expected for the invaded range, China did not. It suggests that China may also be part of its home range. We also observed that diversity across the invaded range was primarily accounted for by a single haplotype, Hap1, which accounted for 79.8% of all records. It was only the invasion of Hap1 that enabled outbreaks to occur and MEAM1’s discovery.

The inter- and intra- specific competition is a key factor influencing population dynamics, ecosystem stability, and adaptive evolution in invertebrates, especially within parasitoid communities. Numerous parasitoid species can detect cues left by other parasitoid species, yet it remains unclear whether these cues influence parasitism behavior and competitive outcomes. Here, we show that the endo-parasitoid Encarsia formosa adjusts reproductive, behavioral and physiological strategies when detecting competition cues from Eretmocerus hayati, which shares the same whitefly host. The results indicate that En. formosa produces an increased number of mature eggs and exhibits more frequent parasitic behavior, changes that likely enhance its competitive ability. Transcriptomic analyses indicate that visual perception of competition alters neurotransmitter and hormone expression, promoting vitellogenin production and egg formation. However, probably due to energy and resource constraints, these additional eggs are smaller and exhibit higher developmental mortality, ultimately leading to a reduction in number of viable offspring. This reproductive adjustment may ultimately increase lifetime fitness under actual competition in the field. Our findings clarify how parasitoids integrate sensory cues into physiological responses, offering a framework for understanding competition-driven reproductive strategies and informing future ecological and evolutionary research. The aphelinid parasitoid Encarsia formosa detects visual cues of competition from Eretmocerus hayati and hormonally adjusts its reproductive strategy, increasing egg production but reducing offspring survival as an adaptive response to competitive environments.

Effective biological control requires diverse natural enemies, but little is known about the parasitoid biodiversity in citrus orchard ecosystems. Here, we characterize the species richness, community structure and seasonal dynamics of parasitoids associated with the citrus leafminer moth Phyllocnistis citrella, a major threat to global citrus production. Through year-round field monitoring (February 2023-January 2024) in Guangzhou, China, seven parasitoid species were identified from two families: six Eulophidae (Citrostichus phyllocnistoides, Cirrospilus quadristriatus, Quadrastichus citrella, Zaommomentedon brevipetiolatus, Pnigalio sp., Chrysonotomyia sp.) and one Encyrtidae (Ageniaspis citricola). The annual dynamics revealed that parasitoids were present throughout the year, exhibiting a bimodal population pattern. Among the parasitoids, C. phyllocnistoides dominated, accounting for 51

Microplastics have evolved as widespread contaminants in terrestrial and aquatic environments, raising significant environmental concerns due to their persistence and bioaccumulation. In this study, we investigated the toxicity of polyethylene microplastics (PE-MPs) on the agricultural insect, Spodoptera frugiperda. Maize leaves containing three sizes (0.5 μm, 5 μm, and 50 μm) of PE-MPs were fed to fall armyworm larvae for 12 days at concentrations of 1.25 g/ L, 5 g/L, and 20 g/L. The results showed that smaller size and higher concentration of microplastics led to increased toxicity. Furthermore, different sizes and maximum concentrations of PE-MPs were selected for subsequent experiments to observe changes in histological and enzymatic biomarkers, midgut microbiome, and metabolic responses. Following PE-MPs exposure, inflammation signs and oxidative stress were detected in the midgut. Significant changes were also observed in midgut microbiota and metabolomes, most related with oxidative stress, inflammatory disorders, and energy metabolism. These results provide evidence of midgut damage and alterations in the microbiota and metabolome of S. frugiperda because of PE-MPs exposure, highlighting the harm that microplastics can inflict on agricultural insects. Additionally, the study lays a theoretical foundation for future research on the transmission of microplastics through the food chain in agricultural ecosystems.

Cornegenapsylla sinica is a devastating pest of longan that vectors the longan pathogen witches' broom virus (LgWB), leading to significant agricultural losses. Efficient control strategies targeting this pest are imperative for sustainable longan production. However, the genetic research on C. sinica is relatively limited, which may hinder the discovery of effective control strategies. Accurate gene expression analysis under various conditions using RT-qPCR is essential for advancing our understanding of this pest and for identifying potential targets for management. In this study, a comprehensive array of specific algorithms, including geNorm, Normfinder, BestKeeper, and the ΔCt method, was applied to assess the stability of 8 candidate reference genes under 4 distinct experimental conditions: developmental stages, sex, tissue, and temperature. Through the application of RefFinder software, a ranking of expression stability among the candidate genes was established. The results indicated that RPL13 and RPL6 were the most stable reference genes under varying developmental stages and temperatures, ATPB and RPL13 were the top choices for different sexes, and RPL13 and EF1α were the most stable in different tissues. Additionally, heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) served as a reporter gene to validate the selected reference genes. This study is the first to report detailed data on comprehensive reference genes suitable for RT-qPCR in C. sinica, laying the groundwork for biological control and functional target gene research in this species, which is crucial for preventing the spread of longan witches' broom virus in longan trees.

Diaphorina citri is the primary global vector of “Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus”, the bacterium responsible for Huanglongbing. Syntaxin-1A (Syx1A), a member of the Qa-SNARE family, is essential for vesicle fusion and signal transduction, though its function in hemipteran insects remains poorly understood. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of Syx1A expression in D. citri. Transcripts were detected across all life stages, with peak expression in the salivary glands. RNAi silencing of Syx1A reduced mRNA levels by 39.0% in nymphs and 58.0% in adults, resulting in 58.3% nmortality in nymphs within 5 days and 73.3% in adults within seven days, along with significant weight loss. Treated females showed marked declines in fecundity, ovarian degeneration, and deficient yolk deposition. RT-qPCR confirmed significant downregulation of Vg1, VgA, and VgR. These findings establish Syx1A as a regulator of growth and reproduction in citrus psyllids via modulation of yolk synthesis. RNAi targeting of Syx1A represents a promising strategy for ecologically sound pest control and may contribute to efforts in halting the transmission of the Huanglongbing pathogen CLas.