The age-regulation mechanism plays a crucial role throughout the entire life cycle of plants, including vegetative growth, growth phase transition, reproductive development, senescence, and regeneration. While this mechanism has been elucidated in angiosperms, it remains poorly understood in gymnosperms. DEFICIENS AGAMOUS-LIKE 1 (DAL1) is a conserved age biomarker in gymnosperms that integrates the aging pathway and reproductive development. However, the molecular regulatory mechanisms governing DAL1 expression patterns are not well understood. In this study, we revealed that DAL1 can activate its own expression through a positive feedback loop by directly binding to its own promoter region. Furthermore, the jasmonic acid (JA)-responsive transcriptional regulator TIFY25 acts as a 'brake' by directly interacting with DAL1 via protein-protein interactions. This interaction inhibits the self-activation of DAL1, ensuring that its expression increases gradually and steadily with age, thereby preventing premature or excessive activation. These findings provide insights into the age-regulation mechanism and integrate JA into the age pathway in P. tabuliformis.

The seasonal growth-dormancy cycle is a critical adaptive trait that enables perennials from boreal and temperate regions to survive winter. This cycle is largely governed by spatiotemporal gene activity in the shoot apex, where chromatin states dynamically respond to seasonal environmental cues. However, the chromatin regulatory mechanisms underlying this response remain poorly understood. Here, we characterize chromatin dynamics in Populus shoot meristems across 5 key stages of the annual growth-dormancy cycle. By integrating data on chromatin accessibility, histone modifications, and transcriptomic dynamics, we reveal stage-specific and distinct (proximal-distal) chromatin reprogramming events that closely align with transcriptomic changes. We further demonstrate that deposition of the repressive histone mark H3K27me3 by the Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 plays a vital role in regulating growth-dormancy transitions. Manipulation of Populus LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN 1 (PtLHP1) expression alters dormancy release and bud break in hybrid poplar. PtLHP1 extensively co-localized with H3K27me3-marked chromatin regions, supporting its role in maintaining H3K27me3 homeostasis during seasonal transitions. Our study provides a comprehensive epigenetic landscape of seasonal growth regulation in trees and identifies potential molecular targets for understanding the mechanisms underlying phenological plasticity.

BackgroundTrimethylation of histone H3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3) confers a repressive chromatin state and is dynamically deposited and removed to regulate gene expression throughout plant growth and development. Nevertheless, the three-dimensional epigenome architecture linked to H3K27me3 and its regulatory role in controlling rice development remain unclear.ResultsHere, we employ long-read ChIA-PET to map the genome topology associated with H3K27me3 in rice, identifying hundreds of repressive chromatin spatial clusters within chromosomes. The T-DNA insertional mutagenesis of EMBRYONIC FLOWER 2b (OsEMF2b) leads to disruption of H3K27me3-associated chromatin interaction networks. Notably, we discover that the three key flowering time loci, Early heading date 1 (Ehd1) and Heading date 3a (Hd3a)/Rice Flowering Locus T1 (RFT1) form an inter-chromosomal repressive chromatin spatial cluster as a cis-interaction hub. Further investigation reveals that Ghd7, Ghd8, and Hd1 undergo liquid-liquid phase separation and bind to Ehd1-Hd3a/RFT1 repressive chromatin spatial cluster as trans flowering regulators.ConclusionOur findings elucidate a multi-dimensional topological framework of H3K27me3-associated loci in rice and identify a spatial flowering gene cluster regulated by the phase-separated repressor complex of Ghd7, Ghd8, and Hd1. These results expand our knowledge of the structural basis of the three-dimensional genome governing the transcriptional coordination of florigens in rice.

Acacia mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrids are widely deployed in tropical plantation forestry due to their rapid growth and versatile wood properties. This study evaluated growth, stem form, and wood properties in a clonal trial of 40 Acacia hybrid clones established at Ba Vi, northern Vietnam, with the objectives of quantifying clonal variation, estimating clonal-mean broad-sense heritability, examining relationships among traits, and identifying superior clones for potential deployment. The trial was assessed at age five using a randomized complete block design with four replications. Growth traits (diameter at breast height and total height), stem form traits (stem straightness and branch size), and wood properties (basic wood density and dynamic modulus of elasticity, MoEd) were analysed using linear mixed-effects models with spatially correlated residuals. Significant clonal variation was detected for all traits. Clonal-mean heritability was moderate for height (H-2 = 0.36 +/- 0.06) and basic wood density (H-2 = 0.25 +/- 0.06), and lower for MoEd (H-2 = 0.16 +/- 0.05) and stem form traits. Genetic correlations indicated a strong positive association between height and diameter (rg = 0.90 +/- 0.03) and moderate negative correlations between growth traits and basic wood density, indicating a trade-off between rapid growth and denser wood. Several clones outperformed certified control clones for stem volume while maintaining acceptable wood properties and survival, demonstrating substantial scope for phenotypic clonal selection and deployment of Acacia hybrids under Vietnamese plantation conditions.

Background: The CONSTANS, CONSTANS-like, and TIMING OF CAB EXPRESSION 1 (CCT) domain proteins are key regulators of flowering time and circadian rhythms in annual plants, but their diversity and temporal expression patterns in perennial trees remain poorly understood. Methods: Here, we performed a genome-wide characterization of CCT family genes and analyzed their seasonal and circadian expression dynamics in Populus. Using an HMM-based search, we identified 49 putative CCT genes (PtCCTs) in the Populus genome and classified them into five subfamilies (COL, CMF, PRR, ALSM and ZIM) based on domain composition and phylogeny. Results: Synteny and duplication analyses showed that most PtCCTs arose from segmental duplication and have predominantly evolved under purifying selection. Promoter analyses revealed a rich repertoire of cis-regulatory elements, with a marked enrichment of light- and hormone-responsive motifs, particularly G-box and ABRE elements, in PtPRR and a subset of PtCOL promoters. Transcriptome data indicated that many PtCCTs display distinct tissue-specific expression patterns, with PtPRRs and PtZIMs being strongly enriched in dormant buds. Seasonal transcriptomes from leaves and shoot apices revealed discrete expression profiles associated with growth, bud set, and winter dormancy, and most PtPRRs showed increasing transcript levels from September to December. Diurnal time-series data further identified 19 PtCCTs with significant rhythmic expression, separating COL and PRR members into night- and day-phased groups. Network analysis using STRING indicated that PtPRRs interact with photoperiodic pathway components such as PtGI, and re-analysis of diurnal data from wild-type and lhy-RNAi hybrid aspen showed that several PtPRRs exhibit phase and amplitude changes when LHY expression is reduced. Conclusions: Together, these results provide a comprehensive overview of the CCT gene family in Populus and highlight PtPRRs and specific PtCOLs as promising candidates that link the circadian clock and light signaling to seasonal growth cessation and bud dormancy in perennial trees.

To understand how the two parental genomes coordinate transcription in hybrids, chromatin architecture must be resolved at the haplotype level. Here, using phased Bridge-Linker Hi-C, we reconstructed a haplotype-resolved three-dimensional (3D) genome of the elite hybrid rice (Oryza sativa) line Shanyou 63 (SY63). We identified extensive allele-specific chromatin conformations. Furthermore, we generated allele-resolved RNAPII ChIA-PET maps and phased transcriptomes to explore how chromatin interactions contribute to allelic regulation. Although maternal and paternal homologs share broadly similar chromatin features, we detected widespread haplotype-biased RNAPII binding and chromatin looping at high resolution. These allele-specific RNAPII-mediated contacts were significantly associated with biased expression. Stronger RNAPII binding on one haplotype promoted the formation of long-range regulatory loops with distal genes, thereby contributing to allele-biased transcription at a subset of loci, even when promoter-proximal RNAPII occupancy was comparable between alleles. These results demonstrate that subtle differences in RNAPII engagement and 3D regulatory wiring between parental haplotypes can reshape transcriptional output in hybrids, providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying the allelic regulation of gene expression.

This study investigates the genetic variability and environmental adaptability of Acacia hybrid clones across three distinct ecological regions, providing insights into growth characteristics and stem quality for future breeding strategies. 42 natural hybrid clones were evaluated over a five-year period in three clonal trials in northern, central and southern Vietnam for height (HT), diameter at breast height (DBH), volume (VOL), trunk straightness (STR), branch size (BRA) and survival. Significant clonal differences were found in all traits across all three regions. From age 2–5, the clone repeatability ( H_C^2 ) for growth traits improved from 0.19 to 0.59, indicating substantial genetic control. Genotypic coefficients of variation (CVG) for volume ranged from 21 to 34

Meruliaceae is one of the three major families of the phlebioid clade in the Polyporales that consists primarily of wood-decaying species. We undertook an in-depth survey on species diversity, generic delimitations, phylogeny, and divergence times within the Meruliaceae with an emphasis on specimens from East Asia. In total, 26 genera including two new genera, Meruliella and Porophlebia, are recognised; ten new species, viz. Crustodontia vietnamensis, Luteochaete odontoidea, Meruliella hainanensis, Merulius pinicola, Mycoacia beijingensis, Phlebiporia crystallifera, P. odontoidea, Pseudophlebia vesiculosa, Scopuloides ellipsoidea, and S. grandinioides are introduced; eleven new combinations, viz. Allophlebia formosana, Aurantiopileus albidus, A. semisupina, Meruliella lindtneri, Merulius croceum, M. leptospermi, M. serialis, Phlebicolorata austroasiana, Phlebiodontia caspica, P. fissurata and Porophlebia fimbriata, and one new name, Mycoacia neotuberculata, are proposed. Noblesia is placed as a synonymy of Merulius, whereas Ceriporiopsis and Lilaceophlebia are accepted as synonyms of Mycoacia. Descriptions and illustrations are provided for the new genera and species, and discussions are provided for all 26 genera and new taxa. The molecular clock analysis results show that the Meruliaceae emerged with a mean stem age of 186.71 Mya of the early Jurassic, and the genera diverged with a mean stem age between 44.29 to 169.46 Mya.

The global transition toward renewable energy sources has intensified in response to escalating environmental challenges. Nevertheless, the inherent intermittency and instability of renewable energy necessitate the development of reliable energy storage technologies. Supercapacitors are particularly notable for their high specific capacitance, rapid charge and discharge capability, and exceptional cycling stability. Concurrently, the increasing demand for efficient and sustainable energy storage systems has stimulated interest in multifunctional electrode materials that integrate electrocatalytic activity with electrochemical energy storage. Two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), owing to their distinctive layered structures, large surface areas, phase state, energy band structure, and intrinsic electrocatalytic properties, have emerged as promising candidates to achieve dual functionality in electrocatalysis and electrochemical energy storage for asymmetric supercapacitors (ASCs). Specifically, their unique electronic properties and catalytic characteristics promote reversible Faradaic reactions and accelerate charge transfer kinetics, thus markedly enhancing charge storage efficiency and energy density. This review highlights recent advances in TMD-based multifunctional electrodes. It elucidates mechanistic correlations between intrinsic electronic properties and electrocatalytic reactions that influence charge storage processes, guiding the rational design of high-performance ASC systems.

Flexible wearable electronic devices, renowned for their high responsiveness, lightweight design, and superior signal transmission capabilities, have garnered extensive interest in smart sensing applications. However, conventional flexible sensors face a critical limitation: the functional separation between sensing and visualization modules. To address this challenge, a novel stretchable luminescent perovskite hydrogel engineered by integrating Sb3+-doped all-inorganic zero-dimensional (0D) perovskite Cs2InCl5⋅H2O into a dual-network hydrogel matrix crosslinked with polyacrylamide (PAM) and poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) has been proposed. The synthesized composite hydrogel can maintain strong yellow fluorescence and deformation properties even under multidimensional mechanical strain. Simultaneously, the real-time strain-sensing functionality through resistance-based electrical signals enables synergistic visualization and quantitative monitoring of dynamic motions. This study not only advances the design of environmentally friendly lead-free perovskite hydrogels but also pioneers a multifunctional platform for next-generation wearable electronics, bridging the gap between optical signaling and mechanosensitive detection.

Glyphosate (GLP) is a globally ubiquitous herbicide that poses a threat to living organisms due to its widespread presence in soil ecosystems. However, the results of current research regarding the effects of glyphosate on soil microorganisms and its ecological risks are vague and inconsistent. In this study, we investigated the impact of single (low/high-dose) and reapplication (high-dose) of glyphosate applications on soil microbes through indoor incubation experiments using 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing technology. Our findings indicate that in the short term, whether it's single or reapplication glyphosate applications, changes in diversities of soil bacterial community were less than those in community composition. Glyphosate exerts selective pressure on soil microbial communities, resulting in a predominant process of species replacement after glyphosate application, and quantitative analysis revealed a higher turnover rate of microbial communities under glyphosate reapplication. Factors related to nitrogen cycling, especially NH4+-N and NO3--N, were identified as the main drivers responsible for the changes in soil microbial community composition following glyphosate addition. Changes in the functionality of soil microbial communities are observed after glyphosate application, with the adaptability of microbial communities resulting in smaller changes with reapplication addition compared to a single application. Furthermore, We observed that glyphosate application leads to a phenomenon resembling the "fitness cost" found in resistant bacteria. When glyphosate as a single application, it has a significant impact on bacterial communities, leading to decreased community diversity, stability, and function, alongside alterations in community structure, however, the effect can be mitigated by reapplying glyphosate.

The development of multifunctional bio‐adhesives that are electrically conductive, flame‐retardant, and electromagnetic shielding is crucial for advancing next‐generation wood‐based composites. However, to date it remains a significant challenge to achieve such functionalities in adhesives while maintaining their strong adhesion. This study draws inspirations from the microstructure and properties of coral shells, and proposed a multiphase engineering to prepare a multifunctional soy protein isolate (SPI) adhesive (SPI/PA@G) by introducing a hierarchical polyaniline/phenylphosphonic acid aggregates‐loaded graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) hybrid. Because of the presence of polyaniline/phenylphosphonic acid aggregates, the designed SPI/PA@G adhesive exhibits remarkable flame retardancy with a high limiting oxygen index value of ≈39.4%. Because the GNPs in the adhesive form a highly conductive network on wood particles surfaces, as‐prepared wood‐based composite achieves an electrical conductivity as high as 43100 S m −1 , and gives rise to an electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of 52.1 dB. In addition, multiple crosslinking interactions endow the SPI/PA@G adhesive with excellent bonding strength, as reflected by a high flexural strength of 19.7 MPa for the wood‐based composite. This study offers a new approach to the design of multifunctional adhesives and their advanced wood‐based composites, which holds great potential for real‐world applications in creating advanced functional wooden products and beyond.

BACKGROUND:Barrier dysfunction and dysbiosis of the skin microbiota are two of the key factors in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis (AD). Phytic acid (PA) is a common constituent of high-fiber foods, whereas its role in AD remains unelucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of PA-altered skin microbial metabolites on AD and to explore its specific mechanism. METHODS:MC903-induced AD mouse models were used to explore the role of PA on AD by TEWL, immunofluorescence, and qPCR analysis. Using cohouse experiments with feces removal to verify the role of skin microbiota. The specific mechanism of effect of PA was explored through 16S, RNA-seq, LC-MS/MS, luciferase assay, and in vivo experiments with siRNA. RESULTS:Diet-derived PA significantly improved the barrier function of MC903-induced AD, whether administered by gavage or topically. Topical application of PA reshaped the skin microbiota in AD mice and increased tryptophan-metabolizing bacteria, especially Staphylococcus epidermidis. Furthermore, PA upregulated skin microbiota-derived indole derivatives, especially indole-3-propionic acid (IPA), thus activating AHR to promote the transcription of KRT10, which further ameliorated AD. CONCLUSION:Our findings showed that diet-derived PA improved barrier function in AD via altering skin microbiota-derived metabolites, highlighting PA as a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of AD.

Excessive nitrogen fertilization has emerged as a significant focus of contemporary agricultural research. Reducing nitrogen fertilization is factually a process of decreasing soil nitrogen resource pulses, elucidating the environmental adaptations and ecological processes of soil fungal communities in this process, and contributions of different sub-communities in it, is a core but less known theme. We investigated soil fungal communities and subcommunities in response to reduction of nitrogen fertilization (fertilization rates were 100 %, 75 %, 50 %, and 0 %, respectively), based on a four-year field plot simulation experiment combining high-throughput sequencing technology. The diversity, community stability, environmental correlation, and co-occurrence network of soil fungal communities was analyzed, combined with concomitant alterations in soil nutrient content throughout the process of nitrogen fertilization reduction, aimed to compare the ecological impact of abundant and rare taxa on the whole soil fungal community. Our results showed that the nitrogen fertilization reduction decreased the diversity (Shannon index) and improved the stability of whole fungal communities. In addition, reduction in nitrogen fertilization leads to an improvement in soil pH (from 4.21 to 6.11) and a decrease in ammonium nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen (94.29 and 130.49 mg/kg, respectively), and abundant taxa showing higher sensitivity but less fluctuations in the breadth of the ecological niche to environmental changes. Reduced nitrogen fertilization resulted in a more complex and stable fungal network structure, while abundant taxa had less variability and higher contributions. These findings highlight the dominant role of abundant taxa in maintaining fungal community stability in facing nitrogen reduction strategies.

Soy protein adhesive is easy to lose water and dry, which leads to the decline of bonding performance and unstable production, restricting its large-scale application. The traditional method of improving the moisturizing performance of adhesive by adding hydrophilic substances often leads to a significant decline in the bonding performance of adhesive. This study addresses this issue by synthesizing a hyperbranched polymer (HBP) and combining it with SPI and the crosslinker triglycidylamine (TGA) to create a high-moisture-retaining, strong adhesive. The hydrophilic HBP, rich in phenolic hydroxyl groups, forms an extensive hydrogen-bonding network that significantly enhances water retention. During hot pressing, phenolic hydroxyl groups react with the epoxy crosslinkers, forming dense aromatic ether linkages, which greatly improve cohesive strength. The resulting adhesive showed 63.43 % mass retention after 40 h at 25 degrees C/60 % RH, an 86 % improvement over pure SPI adhesive. Veneers coated with the SPI/T/HBP3 adhesive after 2 h of air exposure and hot pressing, retained 83.52 % / 80.40 % of dry/wet bonding strength of the directly hot-pressed values, outperforming SPI/Gly adhesive (76.36 %/67.26 %). After 300 days of cyclic aging (40 degrees C, 100 % RH), the adhesive maintained dry/wet bonding strengths of 2.04 MPa and 1.70 MPa, respectively. This study provides new strategies for large-scale application of soybean protein adhesives and enhances biomass adhesives.

Mei (Prunus mume Sieb. et Zucc.) is a rare woody species that flowers in winter, yet its large-scale propagation is limited by the variable ability of cuttings to form adventitious roots (ARs). In this study, two cultivars were compared: P. mume ‘Xiangxue Gongfen’ (GF), which roots readily, and P. mume ‘Zhusha Wanzhaoshui’ (ZS), which is more recalcitrant. Detailed anatomical observations revealed that following cutting, the basal region expanded within 7 days, callus tissues had appeared by 14 days, and AR primordia emerged between 28 and 35 days. Notably, compared to the recalcitrant cultivar ZS, the experimental cultivar GF exhibited significantly enhanced callus tissue formation and AR primordia differentiation. Physiological analyses showed that the initial IAA concentration was highest at day 0, whereas cytokinin (tZR) and gibberellin (GA1) levels peaked at 14 days, with ABA gradually decreasing over time, resulting in increased IAA/tZR and IAA/GA1 ratios during the rooting process. Transcriptomic profiling across these time points identified significant upregulation of key genes (e.g., PmPIN3, PmLOG2, PmCKX5, PmIAA13, PmLAX2, and PmGA2OX1) and transcription factors (PmWOX4, PmSHR, and PmNAC071) in GF compared to ZS. Moreover, correlation analyses revealed that PmSHR expression is closely associated with IAA and tZR levels. Overexpression of PmSHR in tobacco further validated its role in enhancing lateral root formation. Together, these findings provide comprehensive insights into the temporal, hormonal, and genetic regulation of AR formation in P. mume, offering valuable strategies for improving its propagation.

This study aimed to clarify the differences in the decomposition rates, soil carbon and nitrogen contents, soil enzyme activities, and the structure of the soil bacterial community between the four Asteraceae invasive plants (AIPs), Bidens pilosa L., Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq., Solidago canadensis L., and Symphyotrichum subulatum (Michx.) G.L. Nesom, and the native plant Pterocypsela laciniata (Houtt.) Shih under the artificially modeled nitrogen with four forms (including nitrate, ammonium, urea, and the mixed nitrogen forms with an equal mixture of three individual nitrogen forms). The mixed nitrogen forms significantly increased the decomposition rate of the four AIPs and P. laciniata. The positive effects of the mixed nitrogen forms on the decomposition rate of the four AIPs and P. laciniata were obviously greater than those of individual nitrogen forms. Nitrogen with four forms visibly up- or down-regulated the dominant role of predominant soil bacterial biomarkers, and significantly increased the species number, richness, and phylogenetic diversity of the soil bacterial community, as well as the number of most of the functional gene pathways of the soil bacterial communities involved in the decomposition process. The decomposition rate of the four AIPs was similar to that of P. laciniata. The leaves of C. canadensis decomposed more easily than those of S. subulatum. The decomposition process of the four AIPs caused remarkable changes in the relative abundance of several taxa of the soil bacterial community and soil bacterial beta diversity, and caused apparent up- or down-regulation in the dominant role of predominant soil bacterial biomarkers and the number of several functional gene pathways of the soil bacterial communities involved in the decomposition process.

Plants are often subjected to adverse environmental conditions during their growth and development. In order to survive and adapt to their surroundings, plants have evolved various signal transduction pathways and complex physiological and biochemical mechanisms to respond to stress. TCP transcription factors constitute a class of plant-specific transcriptional regulators that govern plant morphology and structure, contributing to the evolution of plant diversity. They are also implicated in various vital biological processes, including plant gametophyte development, circadian rhythms, and hormone signaling. However, the precise underlying physiological mechanisms remain largely unexplored. In this study, we discovered that TCP transcription factor family proteins exhibit remarkable conservation, with an impressive 98 % homology observed between BpTCP20 and AtTCP20. The BpTCP20 gene plays a crucial role in leaf development, as well as in mediating responses to various hormonal and abiotic stress factors. Notably, Betula platyphylla plants overexpressing BpTCP20 displayed increased seedling height, ground diameter, and leaf area compared with their wild-type counterparts, leading to a significant enhancement in their drought and salt tolerance. Further investigations demonstrated that, under conditions of drought and salt stress, Betula platyphylla plants overexpressing BpTCP20 exhibited lower drought indices, salt indices, hydrogen peroxide levels, and malondialdehyde contents compared with wild-type plants. Conversely, chlorophyll and peroxidase contents increased significantly, along with the upregulation of peroxidase and superoxide dismutase related genes. These findings strongly indicate that BpTCP20 plays a positive regulatory role in enhancing drought and salt tolerance in Betula platyphylla. Utilizing RNA sequencing, we identified pathways and transcription factors associated with plant growth and development, as well as drought and salt tolerance. Furthermore, through Yeast one-hybrid assays, we uncovered interactions between BpTCP20 and BpMYB8 and BpIAA5. This study sheds light on the crucial function of BpTCP20 in the regulation of growth and development in Betula platyphylla strains, as well as their response to drought and salt stress. It also underscores the potential of BpTCP20 as a candidate gene for enhancing drought and salt tolerance in plants.

The geographical variation and domestication of tree species are an important part of the theory of forest introduction, and the tracing of the germplasm is the theoretical basis for the establishment of high-quality plantations. Chinese pine (Pinus tabuliformis Carr.) is an important native timber tree species widely distributed in northern China, but it is unclear exactly where germplasm of the main Chinese pine plantation populations originated. Here, using two mtDNA markers, we analyzed 796 individuals representing 35 populations (matR marker), and 873 individuals representing 38 populations (nad5-1 marker) of the major natural and artificial populations in northern China, respectively (Shanxi, Hebei and Liaoning provinces). The results confirmed that the core position of natural SX* populations ("*" means natural population) in the Chinese pine populations of northern China, the genetic diversity of HB and LN plantations was higher than that of natural SX* populations, and there was a large difference in genetic background within the groups of SX* and LN, HB showed the opposite. More importantly, we completed the "point by point" tracing of the HB and LN plantings. The results indicated that almost all HB populations originated from SX* (GDS*, ZTS*, GCS*, and THS*), which resulted in homogeneity of the genetic background of HB populations. Most of germplasm of the LN plantations originated from LN* (ZJS* and WF*), and the other part originated from GDS* (SX*), resulting in the large differences in the genetic background within the LN group. Our results provided a reliable theoretical basis for the scientific allocation, management, and utilization of Chinese pine populations in northern China, and for promoting the high-quality establishment of Chinese pine plantations.