Rapid urbanization is reshaping landscapes worldwide, yet how different land-use types and their interactions influence biodiversity across spatial and temporal scales remains insufficiently understood. In this study, we examined the effects of individual landscape components and their combinations on bird species richness and abundance across three spatial scales (300 m × 300 m, 900 m × 900 m and 1500 m × 1500 m) and three temporal scales (annual, dry season, and rainy season) in a rapidly urbanizing biodiversity hotspot in southwest China. Bird communities were surveyed in 160 grid cells from July 2023 to June 2024, and generalized linear models were applied to assess landscapes effects on bird diversity. The results showed that across all three spatial scales, increases in the area proportion of a certain type of landscape generally had negative effects on bird diversity. By contrast, landscape mosaics that incorporate aquatic areas (both natural and artificial) were found to significantly enhance both species richness and abundance at every examined scale. Notable examples are the aquatic&urban, aquatic&forest, and aquatic&farmland pairings. Moreover, the positive effects of these combinations were stronger for species richness than for abundance. The influence of landscapes on bird diversity also varied seasonally and even shows opposite effects across spatial scales. Our findings confirm that the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity are strongly spatial- and temporal-scale dependent. In the future, the scale effects must be taken into account to enhance the comparability of the conclusions drawn from different studies. Furthermore, this study highlights the critical role of environmentally friendly aquatic landscapes in mitigating biodiversity loss and advocate their inclusion as key structural elements in multi-scales urban and regional planning.

A study on the long-term ecological impacts of specialized behavior can provide valuable insights for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management, particularly in the context of climate change. The endangered primate Rhinopithecus bieti in temperate forest ecosystems relies primarily on the lichen Usnea longissima as its fallback food source. To investigate whether this specialized diet sustains forest health through trophic interactions, our study employed a three-tiered approach: (1) We first examined the impact of U. longissima on trees by comparing the health of branches covered with and without lichen. Findings reveal U. longissima exhibits harm to host trees, as lichen-covered branches displayed significantly higher rates of dieback. (2) Using habitats with varying extinction timelines of R. bieti , we quantified how the presence of R. bieti contributes to reducing U. longissima biomass. Results showed lichen biomass tripled in habitats where the species vanished 40 years ago compared to occupied habitats. (3) We finally used controlled artificial experiments that demonstrated that R. bieti's feeding activities may enhance U. longissima dispersal and growth. Our findings suggest that R. bieti may function as a natural regulator of lichen biomass, potentially helping to prevent overgrowth that could destabilize forest health. Notably, the monkeys' foraging behavior may not only control lichen proliferation but also help to promote its regeneration. This study underscores that restoring R. bieti populations would synergistically benefit both U. longissima viability and forest resilience, advocating for integrated conservation strategies that preserve specialized ecological interactions. Due to the fact that specialized diet species face severe survival challenges in the context of climate and environmental changes, future efforts should be focused on their ecological adaptation mechanisms and improving sustainable management strategies.

Investigating the long-term evolutionary patterns of environmental vocabulary and their mechanisms of geographical spatial distribution can profoundly reveal how human environmental cognition is maintained or reshaped amidst natural and social changes. This also represents a significant challenge in current ecolinguistic research. As the world’s longest continuously used writing system, Chinese characters provide unique materials for examining the spatiotemporal evolution of environmental vocabulary. Water, as the core natural condition for human survival, production, and settlement formation, was among the earliest environmental objects to be continuously recognized and named, particularly within agrarian civilizations. Therefore, this study collected all water-body characters from China’s oldest dictionary and the modern dictionaries with the most extensive character collections, integrating them with toponymic data to systematically investigate the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of Chinese water-body characters and their shaping factors. We propose the hypothesis: from historical times to the contemporary era, human cognition of the water environment has gradually enriched, accompanied by an increase in water-body characters; geographically, regions with abundant water environments also exhibit richer human cognition, reflected in higher diversity of water-body characters. The results indicate: (1) Water-body characters increased by 1226 over the span of 2000 years, reflecting the gradual development of more detailed cognitive classifications of water bodies as humans continuously engaged with, utilized, and managed water resources; over the past 40 years, water-body characters decreased by 432, possibly related to modern language standardization, the contraction of local vocabulary, and the weakening of traditional water environment experience. (2) Geographically, the distribution of water-body types in China generally exhibits a pattern of being more abundant in the southeast and sparser in the northwest (U = 8.5000, p = 0.0002). This pattern is constrained by regional hydrological natural conditions and is closely related to historical settlement development and human activities. The research demonstrates that the evolution of water-body characters is the result of the interplay among hydrological environment, cultural transmission, and social systems. Compared to the global trend of contraction in natural vocabulary across languages, the characteristic of long-term growth and continuity exhibited by the Chinese character system provides an important case for cross-cultural environmental cognition research. This study offers a replicable methodological framework for tracing environmental cognition through lexical systems and provides historically grounded insights for understanding long-term human-water relationships, and also a new linguistic perspective for language ecological protection and sustainable management in the context of climate change.

The “SLOSS” (Single Large or Several Small) debate remains one of the most enduring and influential issues in conservation biology, with divergent findings continuing to shape the application of theory in protected area design and biodiversity conservation. Here, we argue that resolving this debate requires explicit consideration of both taxonomic groups and ecological context, alongside the development of actionable, scenario-specific management recommendations. Focusing on primates, we investigated SLOSS dynamics and optimal reserve size ranges in western Yunnan, China, a global biodiversity hotspot, at both patch and landscape scales. At the landscape scale, under a constant total area, a network of several small patches supported higher cumulative species richness than a single large patch (SS > SL), driven by the capacity of spatially dispersed fragments to collectively intercept highly heterogeneous elevational gradients and diverse micro-habitats. In addition, the relationship between primate species density and patch area followed a unimodal pattern, peaking at 6.92 km². We further demonstrate that the highly fragmented Xiaoheishan Provincial Nature Reserve, composed of multiple small patches, effectively sustains seven primate species, representing 28% of China’s primate fauna and 46.7% of the regional species pool. These findings underscore the critical role of small habitat patches and their network configuration in maintaining primate biodiversity. We recommend that protected area planning prioritize the identification of optimal area ranges that maximize species density, thereby optimizing the spatial efficiency of biodiversity representation (i.e., maximizing species protection per unit of dedicated area), and adopt a hierarchical, context-dependent design framework to develop more effective and resilient conservation networks.

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants with widespread global distribution, continuously accumulating in soils and posing risks of cross-media pollution. Current soil MP detection methods lack unified standards, suffering from high inter-laboratory variability and cost, which become key bottlenecks limiting data comparability and global microplastics pollution control. Here, we systematically reviewed soil MPs studies (2020–2024) and based on stepwise verification, we established a standardized, reproducible detection method: soil samples were dried at 80 °C for 12 h; density separation was performed in Erlenmeyer flasks with decantation, 10 s glass rod stirring, and 12 h settling, repeated five times; digestion was conducted using a 1:2 volume ratio of H2O2 to supernatant at 80 °C for 8 h; and MPs were quantified via stereo-microscopy combined with ImageJ. It should be noted that the use of NaCl limits the recovery of high-density polymers (e.g., PVC, PET), and the minimum detectable particle size is approximately 127 µm. The method was validated in sandy, loam, and clay soils, achieving an average recovery rate of 96.4%, with a processing time of 68 h and a cost of USD 9.77 per sample. In contrast to previous fragmented, non-standardized protocols, this workflow synergistically optimizes high recovery efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and broad applicability, offering a low-cost, efficient, and widely applicable approach for soil MPs monitoring, supporting data comparability across studies and contributing to global pollution assessment and the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

High-altitude animals rely on vertical spatial adaptation to cope with harsh environments, yet the underlying drivers of their seasonal altitudinal distribution remain poorly understood. This study investigated how solar radiation, seasonal high-quality food resources and stable foods shape the altitudinal distribution of the highest-altitude primate Rhinopithecus bieti, to uncover its survival strategies. Through systematic environmental data collection and three-year field tracking of a wild group in the Lasha Mountains, northwest Yunnan, China, we identified consistent seasonal patterns: spring in low-altitude habitats, summer at highest elevations, and intermediate ranges during autumn/winter. Statistical modeling revealed seasonally shifting environmental dependencies. Summer showed no resource limitations, while autumn introduced solar exposure and mature leaves as positive synergistic factors (50% model explanatory power). Winter exhibited peak environmental pressure (80%), with solar and buds becoming critical, though revealing a trade-off between foraging and thermoregulation. Spring demonstrated the strongest environmental coupling (86%), where solar and high-quality food showed significant positive synergy, enabling physical recovery. The species displays remarkable ecological plasticity, with solar being the core cold-season driver. The winter-to-spring transition from resource trade-off to synergy reflects dynamic behavioral adaptations to seasonal climate and nutritional bottlenecks, offering new insights into primate survival strategies in extreme environments.

Camera traps are widely used in wildlife surveys but often generate numerous empty images due to false triggers, which are time-consuming to filter manually. Microsoft's MegaDetector (MD) is commonly applied for empty image filtering; however, setting its confidence threshold is challenging because a high threshold increases the false negative rate (FNR), whereas a low threshold raises the false positive rate (FPR), making it difficult to achieve a satisfactory trade-off between the two. To address this dilemma, we proposed three MD-based methods with different performance and computational requirements. For FNR-sensitive users, we proposed MD_CS, which integrated context image similarity to achieve a very low FNR while controlling the FPR. For FPR-sensitive users, we proposed MD_CL, which used MD to generate supervisory signals for training a classification model, thereby reducing the FPR while controlling the FNR. For users requiring both low FNR and low FPR, we proposed MD_CS_CL, an ensemble method that combined the strengths of MD_CS and MD_CL. Experimental results on multiple datasets showed that these three methods achieved a significantly better balance between FNR and FPR compared to the threshold adjustment method of the MD method. Specifically, MD_CS maintained an FNR of 1.8-5.9% while controlling the FPR at 4.9-8.5%; MD_CL kept the FPR at 0.4-2.6% while controlling the FNR at 3.8-8.4%; MD_CS_CL achieved an optimal balance with an FNR of 1.4-4.0% and an FPR of 0.3-0.9%. On a server equipped with an RTX 4090 GPU, the three methods processed 6.7, 5.4, and 4.0 images per second, respectively, and none required manual annotation. Consequently, the proposed methods reduce labor costs, improve work efficiency, and provide reliable technical support for large-scale wildlife monitoring by achieving a superior FNR-FPR trade-off compared to MD's traditional threshold regulation.

Phylogenetic diversity-habitat size relationship (PDSR), as an extension of the species-area relationship, incorporates evolutionary history to further elucidate the mechanisms shaping biogeographic patterns. However, whether PDSR is temporally unstable during community succession, and the mechanisms underlying such instability, remain poorly understood. In this study, we used a fermentation microbial community as a model and established a closed microcosm system spanning a 10-1000 mL volume gradient. By continuous sampling over 0-60 days and 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing, we characterized the dynamic changes in PDSR throughout succession. The results showed that PDSR underwent stage-specific shifts during community succession: it was significantly positive in the early stage, weakened or became non-significant in the middle stage, and turned negative or remained non-significant in the late stage. The early positive PDSR was mainly attributable to the greater retention of rare lineages in larger-volume habitats, whereas in the late stage, phylogenetic diversity increased in smaller-volume habitats, suggesting a positive role in the resuscitation of potentially dormant lineages. Phylogenetic beta-diversity analysis further showed that lineage turnover rate increased over time, with significant divergence among samples in the later stage. In addition, pH decreased significantly over succession and, through interactions with time and volume, exerted a marked influence on community phylogenetic structure. This study reveals the temporal dynamism of biodiversity spatial patterns and confirms that PDSR shifts non-steadily across successional stages, providing new insights into the organization of microbial diversity across multiple scales.

Fire rapidly reshapes soil environments, yet direct experimental evidence of how soil microorganisms respond through both functional trait adjustment and spatial redistribution remains limited. Here, we used nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) as a model system to test whether their response to fire is mediated by coordinated changes in functional traits and vertical redistribution. We first compared strains isolated from naturally burned habitats with those from adjacent unburned habitats and identified consistent trait shifts; we then tracked NTF dynamics in artificial soil profiles exposed to simulated fire. Strains from burned habitats produced 53–1114% more trapping structures and exhibited bait-based predation efficiencies 9–41% higher than those from unburned habitats. Conidia of fire-adapted strains were smaller, with reductions in length and width of 0.3–8.0 µm and 0.1–3.4 µm, respectively. Hyphal growth rates increased significantly in Dactylellina and Drechslerella but declined overall in Arthrobotrys. In the soil-profile microcosm experiment, simulated fire completely eliminated Arthrobotrys from the topsoil (0–5 cm), whereas Dactylellina and Drechslerella from deeper layers (10–20 cm) were subsequently detected in upper layers, indicating upward redistribution and recolonization within 7–56 days. Together, these results reveal two complementary mechanisms underlying NTF adaptation to fire: individual-level trait shifts, which likely reflect the reallocation of resources from reproductive structures to predatory traps and hyphal expansion, and community-scale vertical redistribution, which enables recolonization via deep-soil source populations. Our work provides experimental evidence that soil microorganisms cope with abrupt fire disturbance through coordinated trait shifts and vertical spatial redistribution, offering mechanistic insights that may support trait-oriented restoration management of post-fire soil ecosystems.

Seasonal body mass fluctuations in mammals reflect fundamental trade-offs between ecological constraints and reproductive effort, yet few studies have simultaneously linked these dynamic changes with activity budgets in high-altitude primates inhabiting extreme-temperature environments. We examined the effects of environmental stress and mating effort on body mass dynamics in black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti). Using monthly non-invasive monitoring over a full annual cycle, we obtained 464 body mass records from free-ranging adults (127 male records, 337 female records). Both sexes showed marked seasonal variation: body mass peaked in spring and autumn, declined moderately in winter (males: -7.4%, females: -2.9%), and dropped more sharply during the mating season (males: -11.1%, females: -12.9%). Male mass loss was positively correlated with the number of mates. Seasonal shifts in activity budgets accompanied these patterns: in summer, males increased movement and females increased both movement and social interaction, while both sexes reduced resting; in winter, both sexes increased feeding time, with females additionally reducing social activities. These findings reveal two distinct phases of body mass loss. Body mass decline was more pronounced during the mating season than in winter, a pattern that may be associated with higher energetic costs related to reproductive activity. Our study demonstrates how high-altitude primates balance survival and reproduction through flexible energy allocation, offering key insights into their seasonal energy allocation resilience in provisioned high-altitude habitats.

The energy and nutrient costs associated with body mass, age, and sex can influence variation in primate behavior and diet. However, comparatively little is known about how these factors affect the behavioral and dietary flexibility of Asian colobines in response to intra-annual climate shifts. We collected data on an isolated population of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha in the Yunling Provincial Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, using instantaneous and scan sampling across 32 months between May 2008 and August 2016 to assess the association of temperature on the activity budgets and diets among and within age-sex classes. Adult females spent more time feeding, juveniles spent more time moving and less time resting, and adult males spent less time moving and more time resting than other age-sex classes. We did not detect any significant variation in diet across age-sex classes. This population spent more time feeding and less time moving and resting in colder months than in warmer months; however, we only detected these temperature-related effects within age-sex classes for moving and resting, not feeding. This population also spent more time feeding on lichen during colder months than during warmer months, a finding that cannot be explained by temperature-related dietary shifts within age-sex classes because their diets remained stable throughout the year. Our results suggest that intra-annual variation in temperature may amplify the distinct physiological demands among different age-sex classes, leading to greater shifts in activity patterns than in diet composition.

The high energy demands of primates during pregnancy and lactation often limit their breeding success due to the availability of food resources. Until now, few studies have focused on the effects of continuous provisioning on primate reproduction. To assess the impact of continuous provisioning on breeding success, we collected data on female reproductive status (primiparous or multiparous), maternal age of births, births, deaths, and sex of infants in a free-ranging semi-provisioned band (FSB) of Rhinopithecus bieti in China from 2010 to 2023. Our results indicate that provisioning significantly increases infant survival. After 8 years of provisioning, 11 females began a pattern of giving birth to infants in two continuous years, skipping reproduction in the third year, and resuming in the fourth year. Continuous provisioning led to a year-by-year reduction in the interbirth interval (IBI) and a gradual decrease in the primiparous age. The percentage of consecutively breeding females (CBFs) and their offspring increased annually and with the mother's ages. Conversely, the percentage of offspring from non-consecutively breeding females (NBFs) decreased over time and with maternal age. Each CBF annually produced 9.4% more infants compared to NBFs. Compared to NBFs, CBFs had a higher maternal age at births, a higher fertility rate, a higher infant survival rate, and a 11.7% shorter IBI. Furthermore, compared to the non-provisioned wild band (NPB), females in the FSB gave birth 128 days earlier, had an 18.9% annual increase in the number of offspring per female, and showed 1.2 times higher infant survival beyond 12 months. Our study demonstrates that provisioning significantly enhances reproductive success and population size. However, before promoting provisioning as a conservation tool to stabilize and recover endangered wildlife populations, it is essential to thoroughly evaluate its potential risks, such as nutritional imbalances, increased stress, and the transmission of diseases.

Given the widespread conflicts between humans and birds in contexts such as agricultural production, airports, and new energy installations, the development and application of bird deterrence technologies hold significant importance for both safeguarding human interests and advancing the cause of wildlife conservation. Artificial sounds are one of the most widely used methods for bird deterrence; however, there is a lack of systematic research on the effects of sound frequency and their combination. The black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis), a first-class nationally protected wild animal of China, shares some of its habitats with human agricultural activities. This study designed sounds of various frequencies and combinations and conducted deterrence experiments on black-necked cranes at their wintering sites in northeastern Yunnan Province, exploring how sound frequency and combinations affect the behavioral responses, escape distances, and escape speeds of the cranes. Our results show that: (1) in terms of behavioral response intensity, escape distances, and escape speed, sounds with high frequency and high variability significantly outperformed other sounds (n = 479, p < 0.001); (2) there were no significant differences in the responses of black-necked cranes of different flock types and age combinations to sounds. The study recommends using high-frequency, highly variable sounds for short-term control of black-necked cranes. Additionally, this research demonstrates that using either high-frequency or high variable sound combinations can achieve efficient bird deterrence in the short term, and provides a scientific basis for developing and refining bird deterrence strategies for other bird species.

The human gut microbiota is closely associated with human health, influencing not only overall well-being but also the incidence and treatment outcomes of diseases. Altitudinal gradients are considered to impact gut microbial community characteristics through factors such as environmental temperature, humidity, and lifestyle. While previous studies have reported altitudinal variations in human gut microbiota in specific regions, a comprehensive exploration of these patterns at a global scale is still lacking. In this study, we analyzed 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing data from healthy human gut microbiota, spanning altitudes from 3 m to 3850 m, obtained from multiple open-access databases. The analysis focused on elucidating the altitudinal patterns of microbial diversity, community composition, and functional profiles. After screening, a total of 6702 sequences from 15 countries were obtained. The diversity of human gut microbiota decreased with increasing altitude (R = -0.047, P < 0.001), but no consistent results were acquired among continents. The relative abundances of the genera Faecalibacterium and Blautia decreased with rising altitude (R = -0.131 and R = -0.135, respectively, P < 0.001 for both), while the relative abundance of the genus Prevotella increased with altitude (R = 0.336, P < 0.001). However, taxa such as Bacilliota, Bacteroides, and Bifidobacterium exhibit no consistent trends across different continents. The abundance of genes associated with the metabolism of terpenoids and polyketides, lipid metabolism, neurodegenerative diseases, and aging increased with altitude (R = 0.146, 0.037, 0.366, and 0.317, respectively; lipid metabolism P = 0.003, others P < 0.001). Conversely, the abundance of genes related to the immune system and carbohydrate metabolism decreased with increasing altitude (R = -0.166 and R = -0.219, respectively; P < 0.001 for both). Altitude significantly influences diversity, composition, and functional attributes of the human gut microbiota.

Understanding how wildlife behavior relates to habitat characteristics is essential for ecology and conservation, particularly in remote, structurally complex landscapes. In this study, we examine seasonal and behavior-specific habitat preferences in black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti), an endangered primate endemic to high-elevation forests in Yunnan, China. We combined long-term behavioral observations (2008–2018) with UAV-based LiDAR data on forest structure (collected in 2022–2023), and camera trap data on human and wildlife activity (2017–2018), to assess how these factors are associated with space use across different behaviors and seasons. Using machine learning models, we identified structural and disturbance-related attributes that were consistently associated with R. bieti behavior at the home-range scale. Vertical forest structure, particularly canopy height and vegetation layering, showed strong associations with foraging and sleeping locations across both wet and dry seasons. These patterns varied depending on behavioral context, supporting the idea that R. bieti adjusts its space use in response to seasonal and structural variation. Human and livestock presence were also negatively associated with habitat use during feeding and movement. While our findings align with established ecological expectations for semi-arboreal primates, they provide one of the first fine-scale, spatially explicit analyses of habitat preferences in R. bieti. We acknowledge the temporal mismatch between datasets as a limitation, and interpret our results conservatively as correlational. Nonetheless, this study highlights the value of combining behavioral, structural, and disturbance data to inform habitat conservation in montane forest ecosystems.

The southeastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Yunnan, China) exhibits high biodiversity but stark differences in species richness between its western Longitudinal Range Gorge (LRG) and eastern Yunnan Plateau (YP). We collected distribution data for 16 primate species in Yunnan and analyzed palynological records over the past 20 ka from 21 localities to identify the biogeographic, climatic, and anthropogenic factors that have driven the present-day distribution of primates in this region. By integrating local ecological knowledge, field surveys, species distribution models, niche utilization rates, and historical vegetation and land use changes, we found that spatial-temporal shifts in the monsoon climate have been a critical factor in shaping primate species richness on the southeastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Compared to the YP, the LRG receives more precipitation, has more limited seasonal temperature variation, and has higher minimum temperatures during the coldest month. These conditions have facilitated the development of moist evergreen broadleaf forests, which represent a more suitable habitat for the 14 primate species that inhabit this area. In contrast, the drought-adapted forests of the YP support only one primate species. Palynological records indicate that the differentiation of the LRG and YP predates human influence. However, over the past 2000  years, anthropogenic habitat loss and hunting have significantly affected the distribution of primates. The ranges of gibbons, langurs, and snub-nosed monkeys are now restricted to the central and northern regions of the LRG and have disappeared from lower elevations. Lorises have disappeared from their northernmost range. In contrast, the distribution of macaques has remained relatively stable. The Yangtze-Red River-24° N line marks the biogeographic boundary of high primate species richness and biodiversity in the LRG and southeastern Yunnan. Our research suggests that changes in monsoon climate have fundamentally shaped contemporary species richness, while recent anthropogenic pressures have caused 'range contraction' for many taxa.

Despite advancements in satellite-derived fire analysis, reconstructing the past remains constrained by historical data limitations. Algorithms for extracting burned area information at the global scale continue to evolve, but complex landscapes and small fires are often excluded, mainly due to sensor spatial resolution. We evaluated the burned area detection capabilities of two recent global products, MODIS FireCCI51 and the Landsat-based GABAM, in a challenging mountainous region over the period 2001-2019. Overall, the spatio-temporal distribution of burn counts within 10 km mesh grid covering the study area correlated well for GABAM (Spearman R: 0.76 and 0.74) and discretely for FireCCI51 (R: 0.53 and 0.45) against two benchmark datasets. Fire event detection performance in the sampled squares in this specific landscape was limited for FireCCI51, despite its reported improvements globally (User’s Accuracy: 0.83, Producer’s Accuracy: 0.08). Conversely, GABAM exhibited relatively strong detection capabilities with reduced commission errors (User’s Accuracy: 0.85, Producer’s Accuracy: 0.68). This evaluation highlights the importance of Landsat-based approaches for global burned area assessments. Landsat's long, consistent time-series and higher spatial resolution offer significant advantages, as reported by the numerous local and regional applications. Yet, its potential for global assessments has been underutilized, hindered by difficulties in handling big amounts of data and the scarcity of analyzable images within a fire year. Nonetheless, the development of GABAM may serve as a proof of concept, demonstrating how the Landsat archive and powerful cloud computing can enhance global burned area mapping, improving accuracy, including small fires, and extending time-series. We encourage researchers to integrate Landsat into global fire extraction routines for comprehensive past fire history reconstruction.

Intangible cultural heritage (ICH) is a valuable cultural resource produced by human beings in the process of environmental adaptation. Its inheritance and protection play a vital role in sustainable social development and human well-being. To address pressing challenges in ICH protection, including improving the effectiveness of conservation funds and achieving integrity living protection, we established universal categories and criteria from a cultural ecology perspective. The intangible cultural heritage threatened-level categories and criteria are intended to be an explicit, easily, and widely understood system for protecting ICH projects according to their threatened risk. Our evaluation criteria assess the threatened level of ICH from the standpoints of both habitats and practitioners. The threatened level of ICH is determined by the higher of the evaluated threatened levels between ICH practitioners and habitats. This level can be further determined by integrating with the existing ICH list systems of various countries, such as the administrative level in China’s Four-tier List System. By applying this system to assess 100 ICH projects spanning 11 categories in Dali Prefecture, China, we demonstrated its simplicity, operability, and applicability across most ICH categories, and consistency with experts’ judgment even in case of incomplete ICH project data. This criteria system marks a pioneering step towards a comprehensive approach applicable to all ICH categories. It seamlessly integrates with China’s ICH Four-tier List System and is well-suited for routine monitoring in cultural ecology reserves precedently established by China, as well as compatible with ICH list systems globally. Through practical implementation, we envision the gradual refinement of this criteria system to enhance ICH protection efforts and bolster global initiatives in safeguarding these invaluable ICH resources.

1. An understanding of how biodiversity confers ecosystem stability is crucial in managing ecosystems under major environmental changes. Multiple biodiversity drivers can stabilize ecosystem functions over time. However, we know little about how local environmental conditions can influence these biodiversity drivers, and consequently how they indirectly shape the ecological stability of ecosystems. 2. We hypothesized that environmental factors can have opposite influences (i.e., not necessarily either positive or negative) on the temporal stability of communities in different environmental ranges depending on the biodiversity drivers involved. We tested this novel hypothesis by using data from a 4-year-long field study of submerged macrophyte across a water depth gradient in 8 heterogeneous bays of Erhai lake (with total sample size of 30,071 quadrats), a large lentic system in China. 3. Results indicate that a unimodal pattern of stability in temporal biomass measurements occurred along the water-depth gradient, and that multiple biodiversity drivers (the asynchrony in species dynamics, and the stability of dominant species) generally increased the temporal stability of aquatic primary producers. However, the effect of water depth either increased or decreased the stability of biomass according to the environmental conditions associated with sites along the water depth gradient. 4. Synthesis. These results reveal the influence of local environmental conditions on the biodiversity drivers of stability may help predict the functional consequences of biodiversity change across different scenarios of environmental change.