The genus Cardamine (Brassicaceae) exhibits remarkable species diversity and endemism in the Hengduan-Himalayan Mountains (HHM) of East Asia; however, its phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history remain unclear. Here, we conducted a phylogenomic analysis of 50 species, including 45 East Asian Cardamine taxa and five Loxostemon species, based on complete chloroplast genomes and 1,081 single-copy nuclear genes. Our results indicate that: (1) Cardamine is not monophyletic, with Loxostemon nested within the genus; moreover, the diagnostic morphological characters traditionally used to delimit Loxostemon have evolved repeatedly and independently, supporting its synonymization under Cardamine. (2) Divergence time estimation and ancestral range reconstruction suggest that the core HHM clade originated approximately 4.34 Ma and rapidly radiated between 4.34 and 1.86 Ma, temporally coincident with major uplift events of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau (QTP). Integrative analyses of gene tree discordance, hybridization signals, and ploidy variation further demonstrate that this rapid diversification was driven by reticulate evolution involving incomplete lineage sorting and frequent hybridization. This study provides the first genome-scale phylogeny framework for East Asian Cardamine, highlights the central role of hybridization in generating plant diversity in the HHM, and offers a robust molecular foundation for future taxonomic revision.

Pterocarya serrata C.K.Schneid., originally described in 1912, has long been treated as a synonym of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinsk. in Plants of the World Online (POWO). Based on an integrative framework combining ploidy determination, morphometric analyses, ecological niche comparisons, and molecular phylogenetics of mixed-ploidy populations, together with extensive herbarium and field investigations, we formally reinstate Pterocarya serrata as a distinct species within the genus Cyclocarya, recognizing three synonyms. Our results reveal clear phenotypic divergence and genetic differentiation between C. serrata and C. paliurus, which have evolved into separate evolutionary lineages. These findings refute the traditional treatment of Cyclocarya as a monotypic genus. Furthermore, we present the first comprehensive morphological descriptions, distribution records, and taxonomic notes for both C. serrata and C. paliurus, thereby advancing the systematic understanding of Cyclocarya.

Cardamine macrophylla Willd. and Cardamine tangutorum O.E.Schulz are both widely distributed plants of the genus Cardamine L. in East Asia, and they are regarded as the same species in Flora of China. In this study, through literature and specimen research, morphological measurement and phylogenetic analyses, the results show that the traditional distinguishing characters cannot distinguish the two species. Cardamine tangutorum O.E.Schulz inserted into the branch of Cardamine macrophylla Willd. in the molecular phylogenetic tree. Therefore, based on the results of this study, Cardamine tangutorum O.E.Schulz was treated as the synonym of Cardamine macrophylla Willd.

Nutlets exhibit the greatest morphological diversity within Lappula and have long served as a key criterion for classification within the genus. However, recent studies have pointed out that overemphasis on nutlet marginal glochids or wing features often leads to artificial infrageneric groupings and ambiguous species delimitations. These limitations highlight the need to reassess the taxonomic utility of nutlet traits through a more comprehensive approach. In this study, we examined 622 nutlets from 41 populations representing 30 Lappula taxa and conducted multivariate analyses of nine quantitative nutlet traits. Additionally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to investigate nutlet surface micromorphology across 31 taxa. Our results reveal the widespread occurrence of heteromorphic nutlets within Lappula, newly documenting this feature in seven additional taxa. Statistical analyses identified three distinct phenotypic clusters based on quantitative traits, with nutlet length, width, thickness, and their derived ratios proving particularly informative for taxonomic delimitation. SEM observations identified four micromorphological types of nutlet surfaces, each showing high consistency at the species level. Both phenotypic clusters and micromorphological types exhibit strong phylogenetic signals, providing valuable systematic insights into evolutionary relationships within Lappula. This study significantly advances our understanding of nutlet morphological diversity and provides a critical foundation for future taxonomic revisions of the genus.

Cardaminemacrophylla Willd. and Cardaminetangutorum O.E.Schulz are both widely distributed plants of the genus Cardamine L. in East Asia, and they are regarded as the same species in Flora of China. In this study, through literature and specimen research, morphological measurement and phylogenetic analyses, the results show that the traditional distinguishing characters cannot distinguish the two species. Cardaminetangutorum O.E.Schulz inserted into the branch of Cardaminemacrophylla Willd. in the molecular phylogenetic tree. Therefore, based on the results of this study, Cardaminetangutorum O.E.Schulz was treated as the synonym of Cardaminemacrophylla Willd.

The application of omics data serves as a powerful tool for investigating the roles of incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) and hybridization in shaping genomic diversity, offering deeper insights into complex evolutionary processes. In this study, we utilized deep genome sequencing data from 76 individuals of Lappula and its closely allied genera, collected from China and Central Asia. By employing the HybPiper and Easy353 pipelines, we recovered 262-279 single-copy nuclear genes (SCNs) and 352-353 Angiosperms353 genes, respectively. We analyzed multiple datasets, including complete chloroplast genomes and a filtered set of 475 SCNs, to conduct phylogenetic analyses using both concatenated and coalescent-based methods. Furthermore, we employed Quartet Sampling (QS), coalescent simulations, MSCquartets, HyDe, and reticulate network analyses to investigate the sources of phylogenetic discordance. Our results confirm that Lappula is polyphyletic, with L. mogoltavica clustering with Pseudolappula sinaica and forming a sister relationship with other taxa included in this study. Additionally, three Lepechiniella taxa nested within distinct clades of Lappula. Significant gene tree discordance was observed at several nodes within Lappula. Coalescent simulations and hybrid detection analyses suggest that both ILS and hybridization contribute to these discrepancies. Flow cytometry (FCM) analyses confirmed the presence of both diploid and tetraploid taxa within Lappula. Phylogenetic network analyses further revealed that Clades IV and VII likely originated through hybridization, with the tetraploids in Clade IV arising from two independent hybridization events. Additionally, the "ghost lineage" identified as sister to Lappula redowskii serves as one of the donors in allopolyploidization. In conclusion, our study provides new insights into the deep phylogenetic relationships of Asian Lappula and its closely allied genera, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the evolution and diversification of Lappula.

Cardamine zhangjiajieensis, a new species from Hunan Province, China, is described and illustrated. Cardamine zhangjiajieensis is similar to C. circaeoides. From the latter, C. zhangjiajieensis is readily distinguished by the terminal leaflet of the cauline leaf 4.5–7 cm (vs. 2.5–4.5 cm), mostly round or oblong (vs. oblong-oval to triangular-oval), margin undulating sinuses (vs. crenate or subentire), seed apically narrow wing (vs. wingless).

Ophiorrhiza paralatiflora , a new species of Rubiaceae from limestone areas of Guangxi, China, is described and illustrated. The new species is morphologically similar to O. alatiflora , but differs from the latter by having an inflorescence that is erect from the youngest developmental stage (versus initially drooping then gradually erect), subulate bract (versus linear or linear‐lanceolate) absent or shorter than 3 mm (versus obvious, 5–15 mm long). It also resembles O. cantonensis , but can be distinguished from the latter by the same characters as from O. alatiflora , plus by having a corolla tube with ca 1 mm (versus 0.3 mm) wide wings outside along its entire length (versus from near apex to the middle part). The conservation status was assessed as ‘Least Concern' (LC) according to the IUCN Red List categories and criteria.

Cardamine sichuanensis, a new species from Sichuan, China, is described and illustrated. It resembles five other Chinese-endemic congeners in being scapose with leafless stems, but differs by the 3–5-foliolate basal leaves. Phylogenetic analysis based on nrITS sequences revealed that this novelty is close to C. macrophylla and C. tangutorum, both of which are non-scapose plants with lilac or purple (vs. white) petals usually 1.5–1.7 (vs. to 1) cm long.

The HAP clade, mainly including Helichrysum Mill, Anaphalis DC., and Pseudognaphalium Kirp., is a major component of tribe Gnaphalieae (Asteraceae). In this clade, Anaphalis represents the largest genus of Asian Gnaphalieae. The intergeneric relationships among Anaphalis and its related genera and the infrageneric taxonomy of this genus are complex and remain controversial. However, there are few studies that have focused on these issues. Herein, based on the current most comprehensive sampling of the HAP clade, especially Anaphalis, we conducted phylogenetic analyses using chloroplast (cp) genome and nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) to evaluate the relationships within HAP clade, test the monophyly of Anaphalis, and examine the infrageneric taxonomy of this genus. Meanwhile, the morphological characters were verified to determine the circumscription and infrageneric taxonomy system of Anaphalis. Additionally, the biogeographical history, diversification processes, and evolution of crucial morphological characters were estimated and inferred. Our phylogenetic analyses suggested that Anaphalis is polyphyletic because it nested with Helichrysum and Pseudognaphalium. Two and four main clades of Anaphalis were identified in cp genome and nrDNA trees, respectively. Compared with nrDNA trees, the cp genome trees were more effective for phylogenetic resolution. After comprehensively analyzing morphological and phylogenetic evidence, it was concluded that the achene surface ornamentation and leaf base showed less homoplasy and supported the two Anaphalis lineages that were inferred from cp genome. Our biogeographical analyses based on cp genome indicated that HAP clade underwent rapid diversification from late Miocene to Pliocene. The two Anaphalis lineages appeared to have originated in Africa, then spread to Western and Southern Asia, and subsequently moved into Southwestern China forming a diversity center. The dispersal patterns of the two Anaphalis lineages were different. One dispersed around the world, except in Africa and South America. The other one dispersed to Eastern and Southeastern Asia from the ancestral origin region.

Ophiorrhiza xunliniana L. Wu & Q.R. Liu (Rubiaceae), a new species from Malipo County, southeastern Yunnan, China, is described and illustrated. It is morphologically similar to O. liangkwangensis but differs from it by having persistent (vs. caducous) stipules, and initially drooping inflorescences that later become suberect (vs. erect throughout the development). Additionally, in long-styled flowers, there is a villous ring near the middle of the corolla tube (vs. no villous ring but soft hairs inside) and densely (vs. sparsely) villous outside of the corolla tubes. Based on the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, the conservation status of O. xunlinii is assessed as Least Concern (LC).

Bupleurumjeholense Nakai (Apioideae, Apiaceae), originally found in the Wuling Mountain of China, was initially described as a species but later treated as a variety of B.sibiricum Vest ex Spreng. However, researchers have recently found that it is more closely related to B.chinense DC. In this study, we conducted morphological and phylogenetic analyses as well as chromosome counting to determine the taxonomic status of B.sibiricumvar.jeholense (Nakai) Chu. Our results showed that B.sibiricumvar.jeholense and B.chinense share common features (i.e., bracteoles 5 and stem solid) that distinguish both from B.sibiricumvar.sibiricum. The chromosome number of B.sibiricumvar.jeholense was found to be the same as in B.chinense (i.e., 2n = 12), whereas the chromosome number of B.sibiricumvar.sibiricum was 64. A phylogenetic tree based on complete chloroplast genome data revealed a close relationship between B.sibiricumvar.jeholense and B.chinense. Finally, B.sibiricumvar.jeholense and B.chinense were mainly found to differ in plant height, number of stems, and middle stem leaves. Based on this evidence, we propose a new combination: Bupleurumchinensevar.jeholense (Nakai) Q.R.Liu & L.H.Wang.

Specimen examinations and field observations revealed that Bupleurum smithii var. parvifolium was distinctly different from B. smithii var. smithii in umbel, leaf, and fruit morphology, but was very similar to B. commelynoideum var. flaviflorum. Based on these morphological evidences, the present study re-examined the taxonomic status of these taxa through morphological, cytological, and phylogenetic analyses. The results showed distinguishable features in the width of middle leaves and bracteoles of B. smithii var. parvifolium compared to B. smithii var. smithii. Morphological variation between B. smithii var. parvifolium and B. commelynoideum var. flaviflorum was continuous and overlapping. Notably, the chromosome number of B. smithii var. parvifolium was 2n = 14 (x = 7), consistent with B. commelynoideum var. flaviflorum, whereas B. smithii var. smithii was 2n = 64 (x = 8). Additionally, phylogenetic analyses revealed B. commelynoideum var. flaviflorum nested within B. smithii var. parvifolium, and that both were distant from the B. smithii var. smithii and B. commelynoideum var. commelynoideum. Based on the evidence above, the differences between B. smithii var. parvifolium and B. smithii var. smithii extend beyond the level of intraspecific variation, and B. commelynoideum var. flaviflorum is considered to be identical with B. smithii var. parvifolium. Hence. A new combination and status, B. parvifolium (Shan & Y.Li) Q.R.Liu & L.H.Wang, comb. et stat. nov., is proposed. Furthermore, B. commelynoideum var. flaviflorum should be treated as a synonym of B. parvifolium.

Epimedium daiguii C. Zhang, B.L. Guo & Q.R. Liu, a new species of the Epimedium, is found and described from Wuling Mountains, Hunan Province, China. It should be a member of Epimedium sect. Diphyllon ser. Brachycerae due to the distinct minor flower feature. This new species resembles E. elachyphyllum (E. parvifolium) in flower traits. The stout rhizomes, flowering stem with two opposite trifoliolate leaves and paniculate inflorescences of this new species distinguish from E. elachyphyllum with elongated rhizomes, flowering stem with a single leaflet, and simple inflorescences.

Ophiorrhiza reflexa, a new species from Guangxi, China, is described and illustrated in this study. It is morphologically similar to O. alatiflora due to the branched inflorescence, distylous flowers and the tubular-funnelform corolla with five longitudinal wings. The new species can be distinguished from O. alatiflora by its erect inflorescence, its smaller and equal-sized calyx lobes 0.5–0.7 mm long, its corolla tubes winged to the middle and the wings straight and its strongly reflexed corolla lobes at anthesis. Ophiorrhiza reflexa is assessed as least concern (LC) according to IUCN Categories and Criteria.

Based on the study of protologues, herbarium specimens, and fieldwork, the authors found that Machilus velutinoides and M. platycarpus are conspecific. According to the rule of Article 11.4 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants (Shenzhen Code), the authors place the former as a synonym of the latter. A table comparing M. platycarpus, M. velutinoides, and M. velutinus is also provided.

The genus Trigonotis comprises nearly 60 species mainly distributed in East and Southeast Asia.China has the largest number of Trigonotis species in the world,with a total of 44 species,of which 38 are endemic.Nutlet morphology is useful for the taxonomic delimitation of Trigonotis.However,there are still controversial circumscriptions of nutlet shape in some species.In previous studies,interspecies phylogenetic relationships were inferred using few DNA markers and very few taxa,which possibly led to erroneous or incomplete conclusions.In this study,the nutlet morphology of 39 Trigonotis taxa and the characteristics of 34 complete chloroplast genomes（29 taxa） were investigated and analyzed.Then,the phylogenetic relationships were discussed within this genus based on complete chloroplast genomes.To the best of our knowledge,this study is the first comprehensive analysis of nutlet morphology and complete chloroplast genome of Trigonotis.Based on nutlet morphology,Trigonotis can be divided into two groups:Group 1,hemispherical or oblique tetrahedron with carpopodiums,and Group 2,inverted tetrahedron without carpopodiums.The chloroplast genome of Trigonotis exhibited a typical quadripartite structure,including 84-86 protein-coding,37 transfer RNA,and 8 ribosomal RNA genes,with a total length of 147,247-148,986 bp.Genes in the junctions were well conserved in Trigonotis,similar to those in other Boraginaceae s.str.species.Furthermore,Trigonotis chloroplast genomes showed relatively high diversity,with more conserved genic regions than intergenic regions;in addition,we detected 14hot spots（Pi＞ 0.005） in non-coding regions.Phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast genome data identified highly resolved relationships between Trigonotis species.Specifically,Trigonotis was divided into two clades with strong support:one clade included species with hemispherical or oblique tetrahedron nutlets with carpopodiums and bracts,whereas the other clade included species with inverted tetrahedron nutlets without carpopodiums or bracts.Our results may inform future taxonomic,phylogenetic,and evolutionary studies on Boraginaceae.

Ophiorrhiza pseudonapoensis, a new species of Rubiaceae is described and illustrated from China. It was previously confused with O. napoensis but differs from the latter in having 5–10 (vs ca. 1) mm long and persistent (vs caducous) stipules, oblanceolate bracts (vs lanceolate-linear), monostylous (vs heterostylous) flowers, and ensiform (vs narrowly triangular) calyx lobes. Ophiorrhiza pseudonapoensis is also morphologically similar to O. macrocarpa, but can be distinguished from the latter by its 5–10 (vs less than 1) mm long stipules, oblanceolate (vs subulate or linear subulate) and 7–20 (vs less than 5) mm long bracts, and (1.2–)1.5–2(–2.5) (vs 0.4–0.6) mm long calyx lobes. The conservation status was assessed as Least Concern (LC) according to the IUCN Red List categories and criteria.