Myanmar, an agriculture-based economy, is one of the most important agricultural countries in mainland Southeast Asia. Although previous studies have documented changes in agricultural land-use and cropping patterns, trends in farmland area, cropping patterns, and food sufficiency across Myanmar’s 14 states/regions remain limited. This study addresses these gaps by using land-cover data from the global 30 m dynamic dataset and statistical data from 2000 to 2025, and household surveys from selected areas. GIS-based spatial analysis, trend analysis, and multivariate analysis of variance were applied to analyze both the direction and magnitude of farmland and cropping pattern changes over time. The results showed that Myanmar’s farmland area increased significantly (τ = +0.52, p < 0.01), expanding by 23.6% over the study period. Double cropping remained an important system, increasing by 55.9%. In the central dry zone, sufficient water availability showed the strongest effect on crop production and farmland area (F = 11.191, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.037), followed by soil fertility loss (F = 10.263, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.034). The analysis estimated that domestic consumption requirements were approximately 7.97 million tons of rice, 3.12 million tons of wheat, and 0.42 million tons of maize. These findings can support sustainable farmland use planning and inform food security policy decisions in Myanmar.

As interactions between global environmental change and socio-economic development become increasingly complex, research on social–ecological system (SES) resilience has become a core domain for addressing diverse socio-environmental risks. Based on 4705 publications indexed in the Web of Science from 1997 to 2025, this study employs bibliometric methods to systematically trace the intellectual evolution of SES resilience research. The results show that: (1) the field has undergone three distinct developmental stages, evolving from early theoretical exploration, through the integration of interdisciplinary frameworks, to a phase characterized by methodological innovation and quantitative modeling, and has now developed into a mature and rapidly growing interdisciplinary research area; (2) global knowledge production in this field remains dominated by developed countries, with institutions and collaboration networks in the United States and Europe occupying central positions, while emerging countries, particularly China, are becoming increasingly influential,, reflecting a dynamically evolving global research landscape; (3) research hotspots have expanded from ecological management to a broader spectrum involving social psychology, urban infrastructure, and adaptive governance, while frontier directions are shifting toward multi-scale assessment, institutional governance, and the integration of socio-technical systems; and (4) Based on the bibliometric results, this study further develops a conceptual SDG-oriented “resources–social–ecological system resilience” (R-SESR) framework to synthesize the links among social vulnerability, ecological stability, and key resource security.

Ecological conservation is pivotal for protecting and restoring critical ecosystems, maintaining regional ecological security, and promoting sustainable development. Within the broader context of global ecological governance, it serves as a core strategy for preserving the integrity and health of vital ecosystems. Additionally, ecological conservation significantly influences regional ecological security and sustainable development. In response to the severe challenge of ongoing global environmental degradation, governments worldwide have initiated and implemented numerous major Ecological Protection Projects (EPPs). These projects aim to reverse ecological degradation and re-establish the natural ecological balance. In this context, there is a growing international demand for the comprehensive and timely monitoring and evaluation of the benefits derived from these ecological protection initiatives. Furthermore, analyzing the bottlenecks and challenges encountered during project implementation has become a critical area where scientific research must advance to meet the needs of the global community. Upon reviewing and comparing peer-reviewed articles on comprehensive benefit assessment, it becomes evident that existing research lacks a holistic perspective on the comprehensive benefit assessment of ecological protection. Furthermore, there is an absence of systematic studies examining the interaction between comprehensive benefits and individual benefits. This study adopts a holistic perspective by examining both the universal and specific issues associated with the comprehensive benefit assessment of EPPs. By focusing on China's national-level EPPs as case studies, the study systematically explores several key areas: (1) the connotation and definition of comprehensive benefit assessment; (2) the construction of a comprehensive benefit assessment index system; (3) the selection of appropriate methodologies for comprehensive benefit assessment; and (4) the specific effects of benefit assessments on EPPs. Additionally, the study innovatively examines the interactions among ecological, economic, social, and comprehensive benefits. It delves into two critical questions: (1) What are the intrinsic mechanisms linking individual benefits to comprehensive benefits? (2) What are the key factors influencing the balance of benefits in EPPs? Ultimately, this research aims to guide efforts in promoting ecological civilization and achieving the strategic goal of sustainable development.

Mixed plantations have emerged as a promising approach to improve soil health and contribute to sustainable land management. Despite the numerous field experiments conducted so far, there is no clear consensus on the impacts of mixed plantations on soil physicochemical properties due to the wide range of findings. This metaanalysis synthesizes findings from 252 studies across China to provide a comprehensive evaluation of these effects within both monoculture and mixed plantation contexts. We quantified the effects of mixed versus monoculture plantations on key soil physicochemical properties, including soil moisture content, bulk density, pH, and nutrient indicators such as soil organic matter, total nitrogen, available nitrogen, total phosphorus, available phosphorus, total potassium, and available potassium. Additionally, we identified the primary drivers of these changes, focusing on factors such as initial soil pH, elevation, mixing proportion, and plantation age. Compared to monocultures, mixed plantations significantly enhanced key soil physicochemical properties, with available potassium, soil organic matter, and available phosphorus each increasing by 18 %. However, soil pH only increased by 1 %. The magnitude of the response varied significantly across different analytes, influenced by factors including initial soil pH, elevation, mixing proportion, and plantation age, underscoring the complex interactions that affect soil dynamics under different plantation management strategies.

Storage and transportation of coal, as well as operation of coal-fired power plants, produce amounts of metallic exhaust that may lead to different atmospheric environment in the overlapped areas of farmland and coal resource (OAFCR) environment. To investigate the effects of different atmospheric environment in the OAFCR region (north of Xuzhou) on wheat seedlings (AK-58), a box experiment was conducted and compared to an area far from the OAFCR (south of Xuzhou). The study revealed that (1) compared to the southern suburb of Xuzhou, the fresh and dry weight, activities of photosynthetic enzymes and POD of wheat seedlings in the OAFCR reduced obviously. (2) Significantly higher levels of Cr, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Cu were found in the shoots and roots of wheat seedlings in the OAFCR, with lower transfer factor for heavy metals (except Cd and As) in comparison to those in the southern suburb. And the bioconcentration factors of heavy metals (except As) in wheat seedlings in the OAFCR were significantly higher. (3) Nearly 90% of heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn, and Cr) absorbed by wheat were stored in cell walls and soluble fractions, with significantly higher contents of Cu and Cr in wheat seedlings' cell walls and higher contents of Pb, Zn, and Cd in soluble components found in the OAFCR. Our results showed that atmospheric deposition in the mining area has a certain toxic effect on wheat seedlings, and this study provides a theoretical basis for OAFCR crop toxicity management.

Abstract Due to the sensitivity of microorganisms to the environment, microorganisms with strong tolerance in the early stage of coal mining collapse will gradually move to a dominant position, and plants can improve soil quality and provide important carbon sources for microorganisms. The soil characteristics and the response of soil bacteria in the early cracks during 15 ~ 20 days of mining were studied. Compared with non-cracked farmland group (C), soil bulk density in cracked farmland group (F) increased significantly in the early stage of coal mining,while porosity was on the contrary (p < 0.05). The mineral elements (except Ca and Na) in F were significantly lower than those in cracked abandoned land group (A).The abundance of the microbial community might be more closely related to crop planting, while the evenness of the microbial community was more affected by cracks. Coal mining cracks make Proteobacteria enrich significantly, while crop planting is conducive to the enrichment of RB41 and Pir4_lineage. Soil moisture content and AN were significantly negatively correlated with the relative abundance, while pH was significantly positively correlated with it. Planctomycetes and Bacteroidetes, which were significantly enriched in the non-crack area, were significantly positively correlated with AP, while Thaumarchaeot was significantly positively correlated with Eh. The study provided a basis for improving the low ecological environment damage mining technology.

Ecological restoration has significantly improved ecosystem services (ESs) in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Identifying spatial priority restoration areas based on ESs plays a key role in future ecological restoration, as dynamic trade-off relationships exist in multiple ESs. This study examined the dynamic spatial and temporal relationships among soil erosion, carbon storage, and habitat quality from 1988 to 2020 and explored the spatial priority restoration areas in Yan’an, the Loess Plateau. We found that ecological restoration has improved soil erosion, carbon storage, and habitat quality in the entire Yan’an over the past three decades, but low values of ES areas were concentrated in north Yan’an. Trade-offs occurred in soil erosion, carbon storage, and habitat quality from 1988 to 2020. Significant trade-off relationship areas moved from south to north Yan’an, concentrating on Wuqi, Zhidan, Ansai counties, and north Baota district. Moreover, a high level of vegetation cover was maintained in Yan’an in 2015 and 2020, but we did not find a significant improvement for three ESs in 2020 in comparison to 2015. Thus, a focus should be on the maintenance of the level of vegetation in 2020 and priority restoration areas tend to be clustered in four counties located in north Yan’an. However, knowledge on what vegetation threshold is compatible with a good level of ES is missing. Future research may investigate the threshold of vegetation cover for providing multiple ES on a regional scale, even expanding to the entire Loess Plateau, and further identifying spatial priority restoration areas across the Loess Plateau.

In many coastal cities around the world, continuing water degradation threatens the living environment of humans and aquatic organisms. To assess and control the water pollution situation, this study estimated the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) concentration of Hong Kong's marine waters using remote sensing and an improved machine learning (ML) method. The scheme was derived from four ML algorithms (RBF, SVR, RF, XGB) and calibrated using a large amount (N > 1000) of in-situ BOD5 data. Based on labeled datasets with different preprocessing, i.e., the original BOD5, the log10(BOD5), and label distribution smoothing (LDS), three types of models were trained and evaluated. The results highlight the superior potential of the LDS-based model to improve BOD5 estimate by dealing with imbalanced training dataset. Additionally, XGB and RF outperformed RBF and SVR when the model was developed using log10(BOD5) or LDS(BOD5). Over two decades, the BOD5 concentration of Hong Kong marine waters in the autumn (Sep. to Nov.) shows a downward trend, with significant decreases in Deep Bay, Western Buffer, Victoria Harbour, Eastern Buffer, Junk Bay, Port Shelter, and the Tolo Harbour and Channel. Principal component analysis revealed that nutrient levels emerged as the predominant factor in Victoria Harbour and the interior of Deep Bay, while chlorophyll-related and physical parameters were dominant in Southern, Mirs Bay, Northwestern, and the outlet of Deep Bay. LDS provides a new perspective to improve ML-based water quality estimation by alleviating the imbalance in the labeled dataset. Overall, the remotely sensed BOD5 can offer insight into the spatial-temporal distribution of organic matter in Hong Kong coastal waters and valuable guidance for the pollution control.

Research on ecosystem services flow has attracted increasing interest as they provide essential knowledge to payments for ecosystem services (PES) by developing the spatial relationship between service benefit area and service providing area. In this study, we calculated the wind erosion prevention service (WEPS) in the Hunshandake region using the RWEQ model, simulated the WEPS flow trajectories using the HYSPLIT model, investigated the flow process of WEPS and its monetary values to develop the relationship between the beneficiary areas and the Hunshandake region, with the aim of proposing an integrated PES framework that links beneficiary areas to the Hunshandake region. The results indicated that the WEPS in the Hunshandake region were 2.67 x 10(12) kg yr(-1), 2.18 x 10(12) kg yr(-1), and 3.26 x 10(12) kg yr(-1) in 2010, 2015 and 2018, respectively, and their monetary values were 3.94 x 10(9) USD yr(-1), 3.50 x 10(9) USD yr(-1), and 4.93 x 10(9) USD yr(-1), respectively. Most WEPS were transferred along the track to northern and northeastern China and continued on to Mongolia, Russia, North Korea, South Korea and Japan, while some were transported through central and eastern China to southern China and Southeast Asian countries. The Chinese beneficiary regions received between 69.75% and 70.81% of the total transferred WEPS from the Hunshandake region, with beneficiary countries outside of China receiving the remainder. We developed an integrated ecological payment framework based on the transferred values of WEPS and their demands in the beneficiary areas. The total payments for WEPS from beneficiary areas were 503.91 x 10(6) USD yr(-1), 422.83 x 10(6) USD yr(-1), and 609.18 x 10(6) USD yr(-1) in 2010, 2015 and 2018, respectively. The ecological payments due from the beneficiary countries except China, the beneficiary provinces in China and the actual payments made as ecological fiscal transfers (EFT) from the Government of China; their percentages were 10.24%, 35.42% and 54.34%, respectively. Actualization of payments from benefitting countries and provinces within China were simulated with the percentage of EFT to the total transferred benefits in China decreasing from 60.54% to 40% and 20%; the value of payments from government would then reduce from 95.71 x 10(6) USD yr(-1) to 63.24 x 10(6) USD yr(-1) and 31.62 x 10(6) USD yr(-1), respectively, alleviating the financial burden of government substantially. This study could provide a scientific basis for the government of China to formulate policies for payments from beneficiary provinces to Hunshandake region within China and facilitate negotiations with other countries on their potential payments to Hunshandake region providing WEPS to their benefit.

Climate change will impact the distribution of species and their preferred habitat, thereby influencing the ecological processes intrinsic to these species. To investigate these phenomena, we analyzed the habitat distribution, structure, and connectivity of 6 forest ungulate species in Southwest China under current and future climate scenarios. Habitat projections indicate that forest ungulates will migrate to the southwest at higher elevations and the northwest at higher latitudes and elevations in the study area under climate change. The extent to which climate change affects the 6 forest ungulates is quite different. By 2050, there will still be a certain range of habitats for migration in the study area, but the habitat quality of species will have decreased to varying degrees after migration. By 2070, most forest ungulates will begin to experience significant habitat loss and habitat quality decline. The migration of species habitat also leads to a change in species habitat structure. Habitat landscape quality declines for most forest ungulate species. The loss of patches at the junction habitat has a huge impact on species habitat connectivity. The number and distance of corridors between the marginal habitat patches and the core habitat patches increase to a certain extent. To better achieve biodiversity conservation, we should strengthen the restoration and connectivity management of fragmented habitats to protect and restore the current habitats of species. Examples include the management of specific key areas and the establishment of large-scale integrated protected areas such as the Giant Panda National Park.

The Blue Economic Zone of the Shandong Peninsula is located in the transitional zone between land and sea, with a complex ecological environment. The determination of hot and cold spots in various ecosystem services is crucial for the coordinated development of ecosystem services and the optimization of the spatial pattern of the ecological environment. This study, based on natural and socio-economic data, utilizes various ecological models to simulate water yield (provisioning service), carbon sequestration (regulating service), biodiversity (supporting service), and aesthetic and scientific research values (cultural service). Using a multi-criteria decision-making approach, it identifies hot and cold spots of ecosystem services in different development–conservation scenarios. Combining the protection efficiency of different areas, it proposes a spatial pattern promotion scheme. The research indicates significant spatial differences in ecosystem services without clear trade-offs and synergies. Changes in the weights of ecosystem services in 11 scenarios result in significant differences in hot and cold spots. Compared to the neutral scenario (S6), the distribution of hot and cold spots in protection scenarios (S1–S5) is relatively scattered, while in development scenarios (S7–S11), hot spots show an increasing trend of concentration in the southeast, with cold spots scattered in the west and northwest. Four spatial pattern promotion schemes are proposed based on protection efficiency and policy preferences. Promotion areas should focus on ecological restoration and improvement to raise local ecosystem service levels. Protection areas should emphasize maintaining their existing high-level ecosystem services to achieve a synergistic enhancement of various ecosystem services.

Realizing comprehensive green transformation is the necessary path for high-quality and sustainable development in Qinghai Province.We constructed an indicator system for evaluating the green development in Qinghai from five dimensions:resource utilization,environmental protection,ecological protection,growth quality,and green life based on the national green development indicator system;and comprehensively used the entropy method,comprehensive index method,coupled coordination model,and obstacle degree model to evaluate the green development level of Qinghai from 1998 to 2022.The results showed four important points.(1)The green development comprehensive index of Qinghai increased gradually in the past 25 years,but there is still much room for improvement.(2)The focus of green development changed in the three evaluation stages.The focus in 1998-2004 and 2005-2011 was on improving the ecological environment,and in 2012-2022 the focus was on economic and industrial development and the improvement of residents'living standards.(3)Since 2001,the cou-pling degree of the five dimensions of green development has maintained a high-level coupling stage,and the co-ordinated development degree entered a good coordination stage in 2021.(4)The key obstacles hindering the im-provement of green development level shifted from growth quality to resource utilization and ecological protection.Therefore,improving the resource utilization level is the primary task for Qinghai to achieve high-quality green de-velopment.The study provides methodological support for green development evaluation,and suggestions for di-recting the formulation of green development policies in Qinghai Province.

From land cover analysis, cropland expansion was a major driving factor for land use land cover changes in Nigeria from 2000 to 2020. This further highlights the food production needs in the country. While this land use change indicates a significant alteration in land cover, it was exigent to assess land suitability using a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) combined with geospatial techniques to identify areas with agricultural suitability potential and to analyze cropland suitability. The results showed that the country had 8% of very high suitability, high suitability (25%), moderate suitability (29%), and marginal suitability (25%) croplands. However, low suitability accounts for 14% of the entire cropland. The spatial distribution of cropland suitability shows that most areas in the South East, South South, and South West, respectively, have the most suitable cropland as they meet the biophysical conditions for crop production, followed by the North Central regions, while most places in the North (North East and North West) have a higher share of moderate to low suitability. This study highlights the potential of the country to target localized self-sufficiency. Therefore, this study recommends using the cropland suitability map to launch food security programs across the six geopolitical zones to maximize their inherent environmental potentials to alleviate the country’s food production needs.

Working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) are two funda-mental and supportive components of executive function (EF) that are critical for school-age children. However, the direct comparison of the training and transfer effects of WM and IC training in school-age children still needs to be improved. This study adopted a "pre-, post-, and delayed posttest" design to compare the training, near-transfer, and far-transfer effects of WM and IC in school-age children. A total of 60 children aged 8 to 10 years were randomly assigned to the WM training group, IC training group, or control group. Children in the WM and IC training groups completed 12 sessions of multiple adaptive training tasks tapping different sub-components of WM (visual-spatial and verbal WM) and IC (inter-ference control and response inhibition) separately. In the pretraining, posttraining, and 6-month follow-up stages, we used WM and IC tasks to evaluate training and near-transfer effects and used analogical reasoning tasks to evaluate far-transfer effects. Results showed significant training effects on visual-spatial and verbal WM, near-transfer effects on response inhibition, and far -transfer effects on analogical reasoning for WM training in the posttraining stage. The improvements in verbal WM and analogical reasoning were maintained for 6 months, whereas for IC training only the training effects on response inhibition and the far -transfer effects on analogical reasoning were observed in the post -training stage and only the training effects on response inhibition were maintained for 6 months. Results suggested positive training and asymmetrical transfer effects of WM and IC training, which provide new evidence for the effectiveness of WM and IC training in school-age children.(c) 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Various soil erosion control techniques (SECTs) have been applied for decades. Yet, dynamic development of SECTs on a global scale has not been fully explored in the literature. We identified 779 publications to summarize spatial and temporal patterns of SECT development across the world. To achieve this goal, we asked (a) how many SECTs have been applied in the real world? (b) How do susceptible erosion areas use SECTs? And (c) what are the temporal patterns of SECT development? We found 183 sub-categories of SECTs, including 85 sub-categories of engineering techniques, 76 sub-categories of cropping techniques, and 22 sub-categories of biological techniques. In contrast, there is a great deal of interest in the evaluation of biological techniques and cropping techniques for soil erosion control. SECT research has evolved from an initial focus on a single SECT evaluation to a combination of SECTs evaluations (e.g. a combination of conservation tillage and mulch). Likewise, 64% of SECT cases were found in six countries with a different focal SECT among them: China and Spain targeted vegetation restoration, Brazil and the United States focused on conservation tillage, Ethiopia prioritized mixed SECTs, and India emphasized on check dam. Lastly, SECT application started from site erosion control (1930s–1980s), watershed management (1980s–2010s), to sustainable management (after 2010s). We identify the gaps between SECT application and research and a lack of an international platform for knowledge sharing, and propose that a combination of different SETCs in a balanced way is a reliable approach to obtaining the goal of sustainable soil management.

In the face of increasingly severe ecological degradation in the typical fragile ecological regions around the world, many different ecological technologies (ET) have been developed. However, there is still a lack of any comprehensive analysis of these technologies and the effects of their implementation on regional ecological sys-tems, and this largely limits the promotion of the excellent technologies and their applications. Based on the Web of Science core online database and specific literature screening criteria, 3409 papers were selected to summarize and analyze the development trends, research hotspots and regional comparisons of ecological technology effect research. Furthermore, 19 publications from 14 regions were selected to compare and analyze the effects of eight commonly applied ET: shelterbelt, artificial afforestation, water-saving irrigation, terrace, stereo-agriculture, contour tillage, ban/rest/rotational grazing and fallow/no tillage/minimum tillage. The results show four key features: (1) The research on the effect of ecological technology is still in the period of continuous development. (2) "Erosion" is the largest node in the keyword co-occurrence map of ecological technologies effect research, followed by "manage-ment". (3) Most countries pay attention to the studies of "erosion" and "runoff", although there are differences in research on the effects of ecological technologies in different countries. (4) The same technology could be applied to different regions but the effects varied, and the ecological technologies that have been implemented have gen-erally achieved good restoration effects; however, the improper use of ecological technologies may bring negative consequences. This study provides important support for ecosystem restoration and improvement in the ecologi-cally degraded areas in China and around the world, and it provides a reference for the export and introduction of excellent technologies.

The water supply services of the Li River are essential for the ecological environment and local social development. Based on the InVEST model, we quantitatively analyzed the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of water supply services in the Li River Basin from 2000 to 2018 at multiple scales, including the raster, sub-basin, and regional scales, clarified the differences in water yield among different land use types, and explored the different stages of changes in the characteristics of water services. The results revealed four key aspects of this system. (1) The water supply service of Li River Basin showed a spatial distribution pattern of high in the north and low in the south, and the water yield gradually decreased from north to south. (2) Among the various land use types in Li River Basin, the average water supply capacity decreased in the following order: artificial surface, unused land, grassland, forest, cropland and wetland. (3) The average amounts of water services in the 18 sub-basins varied widely, with four sub-basins belonging to the high-value area for water supply services, eight in the middle-value area, and six in the low-value area. (4) From 2000 to 2010, the regions with large fluctuations in water supply services include the midstream region, Lipu River region, and the northern region of Gongcheng River; while from 2010 to 2018, the areas with large fluctuations were in the midstream region and Gongcheng River region. The results of this research increase our understanding of the water supply services in the Li River Basin and provide a critical scientific basis for the reverse compensation of a regional ecological compensation mechanism.

Ecosystem service flow plays a vital role in the formation, transportation, transformation, and maintenance of ecosystem services. For ecosystem services with spatiotemporal mismatch of supply and demand, ecosystem service flow explains the integrated process of ‘supply-flow-demand’ of ecosystem services. The present study evaluates the supply and demand of ecosystem water provision services in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and simulates the spatial flow pattern and transmission mechanism of water provision services. Additionally, the study establishes dynamic and static water security indices and identify water security level to quantify the water resources security of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau under the changing ecological environment. The research shows: (a) the annual total water surplus were 6.71 × 1011 m3, 8.43 × 1011 m3, 7.86 × 1011 m3 and 2.91 × 1011 m3. The supply–demand relationship of water provisioning service in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau shows an obvious oversupply condition; (b) The water security level of the plateau is high (level V and level IV), indicating that the water security status of the Qinghai- Tibet Plateau is under good condition, however, the area with low-security levels (Level I and Level II) is increasing. (c) From the perspective of ‘supply-demand-flow’ of ecosystem services, although the function of the water tower on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has declined, it remained safe condition on the whole study area. The method of establishing spatial correlation between mismatched supply and demand of ecosystem services and evaluating regional water security based on ecosystem service flow constructed in this study presents the water security status and spatial distribution of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau more scientifically, providing a reference for water resource management in other regions.

AbstractGrain self‐sufficiency (GSS) is gaining increased attention throughout the world, and this holds particularly true for China. This study, therefore, investigated spatial and temporal patterns of GSS at the county level in China from 1980s to the 2010s; then explored future GSS changes in the 2035s according to China's 2016 dietary nutrition guidelines, under the circumstances of maximum, average and minimum grain yield increase rate; and finally discussed the ability of a county to purchase grain to meet its demands. The results indicate that the number of counties with self‐insufficiency for total grain and ration decreased, and the amount of counties with high‐level self‐sufficiency for total grain and ration increased. However, the change in the number of counties with feed grain self‐insufficiency and high‐level self‐sufficiency is opposite to that of ration and total grain. Eastern China was characterised by high GSS of total grain, ration and feed grain. As for different kinds of grain, high level of GSS distributed in main grain producing areas, such as rice in south China, wheat in western China and Huang Huai Hai Plain, maize in north and northwest China and soybean in northeast China. Qinghai‐Tibet plateau has undergone poor food security in the last 30 years. In the 2035s, China's total GSS level and ration self‐sufficiency level will be improved under the maximum and average grain yield increase rate, whilst for feed grain, the self‐sufficiency level will be improved only under the maximum grain yield increase rate. The Qinghai‐Tibet plateau has always been a fragile area of food security. This study plays the vital function in understanding China's food security and contributes to the optimisation of agricultural production as well as the utilisation of both internal and external markets.

Research on spatial flow as it relates to the relationship between the supply and demand of ecosystem services supports a significant connection between the supply of ecosystem services and human well-being. Understanding the entire process of the production and flow, as well as the use of ecosystem services, accurately assessing the balance of supply and demand of ecosystem services, and establishing a two-way feedback relationship between supply and demand are vital for the scientific management of the ecosystem and ensuring the sustainable development of regional resources. Based on a large number of relevant publications, this paper comprehensively summarizes the concepts and assessment methods of ecosystem service supply and demand from the perspective of ecosystem service supply and demand, and discusses the impacts of land use and climate change on the temporal and spatial changes of ecosystem services under the background of global change. Then, an analysis of the research progress in the ecosystem services spatial flow indicated that there are still deficiencies in the quantification of cultural services, the dynamics of ecosystem service flow and the driving mechanism of ecosystem services. We also propose that clarifying the driving mechanism and transfer process of ecosystem services, and realizing the mutual conversion between different spatial-temporal scales of ecosystem services, is an important approach for improving the application of ecosystem services research in practice in the future.