The bulbil, originating in the leaf axil of Lilium lancifolium, functions as a vital reproductive organ for bulbous propagation. The mechanism of bulbil formation, however, is still unclear. In this study, we conducted histological, transcriptomic, and gene function analyses on leaf axil samples throughout bulbil formation. Histological analysis revealed that the bulbils arose from the axillary meristem and bulbil formation undergoes a two-step process: initiation and development. During the bulbil initiation stage, RNA-seq analysis revealed that the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were primarily enriched in phytohormone-related pathways, especially auxin. Through virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), the individual silencing phenotypes of nine genes derived from four hormones imply that decreased auxin and ethylene signaling, paired with increased cytokinin and gibberellin, may contribute to bulbil initiation. Among the numerous differentially expressed transcription factors, LlMYB119 may play a role as a candidate gene in auxin-regulated bulbil initiation, as confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and VIGS. During bulbil development, DEGs showed significant enrichment in carbohydrate metabolism, as well as phytohormone signal transduction. Silencing seven specific genes involved in auxin and ethylene signaling, cytokinin and gibberellin biosynthesis, as well as carbohydrate metabolism, resulted in inhibition of axillary organ development. In summary, this study offers a rich pool of candidate genes, enhancing our understanding of the regulatory mechanism underlying bulbil initiation and development, and holding significant commercial potential for the advancement of new reproductive organs in L. lancifolium.

Continuous cropping obstacles (CCOs), driven by microbial dysbiosis, hinder sustainable Chrysanthemum morifolium production. While rotation and organic amendments are known to alleviate CCOs, their impact on microbial interactomes remains unclear. This study evaluated 10 agronomic treatments during a full cultivation cycle, ranging from monoculture (CK) to integrated rotation systems combined with bio-organic fertilizer or vermicompost (Rot_Org and Rot_Org_Ver), in a field with five-year continuous cropping history of Chrysanthemum morifolium. We integrated soil physicochemical analysis, enzyme profiling, and high-throughput sequencing (16S/ITS) with phytochemical assessments. Results showed integrated management improved soil nutrients and enzyme activities (e.g., sucrase, protease), reduced bacterial α-diversity, but enriched beneficial fungal taxa (Ascomycota, Mortierellomycota), which responded more strongly to AN/AP shifts than bacteria. Pathogen abundance declined under vermicompost-amended rotation (Rot_Org_Ver). XGBoost modeling with SHAP interpretation identified fungal positive cohesion as the paramount biological predictor of yield, which also correlated with flavonoid and phenolic acid accumulation. We conclude that assembling a stable, cohesive fungal interactome-rather than increasing species richness-is the primary mechanism coupling soil health restoration with crop productivity, providing a theoretical framework for ecological intensification in medicinal plant cultivation.

The colored calla lily, a member of the genus Zantedeschia in the Araceae family native to South Africa, is a valuable ornamental plant. However, the lack of a high-quality genome has hindered genetic analysis and the identification of key trait-related genes. We successfully assembled a haplotype-resolved genome of the colored calla lily, revealing extensive heterozygosity between homologous chromosomes. Comparative genomics analyses demonstrated that transposon insertions have led to significant differences in genome size among Araceae species. Notably, Araceae species experienced two closely-spaced whole-genome duplication (WGD) events before species divergence. Further analysis revealed that in terrestrial True Araceae species, genes associated with lignin synthase, cellulose synthase, expansin, and sugar transport proteins have undergone expansion, likely contributing to environmental adaptation and tuber starch accumulation. Additionally, we identified a key MIKCC gene that may play a crucial role in spathe development. This study not only elucidates the evolutionary history of Araceae species but also provides valuable data to support functional genomics research and breeding efforts for the colored calla lily.

Soft rot is a major disease affecting the production of colored calla lily, significantly compromising its ornamental, commercial, and market value. In this study, we identified potential long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in colored calla lily (Zantedeschia elliottiana) leaves infected with soft rot via transcriptome sequencing. Among them, long non-coding RNA 88490 (LNC88940) was identified as a differentially expressed lncRNA that was significantly upregulated following soft rot infection. The results revealed that LNC88940 functions as an endogenous target mimic (eTM) for miR528, reducing the expression level of miR528 and thereby indirectly promoting superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression. Experiments involving transient overexpression and silencing of LNC88940 and SOD revealed that overexpression significantly reduced lesion areas and enhanced resistance to soft rot, whereas silencing had the opposite effect. Additionally, the increase in salicylic acid (SA) levels in leaves following soft rot infection was closely associated with the upregulation of LNC88940 expression. Further investigation revealed that TGACG-binding factor 2 (TGA2) can directly bind to the promoter of LNC88940, thereby increasing its expression. This study reveals the crucial role of the SA-mediated TGA2-LNC88940-miR528-SOD module in regulating the resistance of colored calla lily to soft rot, providing new theoretical insights into the lncRNA-mediated regulation of disease resistance in ornamental horticultural crop species.

Bulblet initiation in Lilium lancifolium is a critical yet understudied aspect of lily development. Prior research has predominantly focused on bulb production and tissue culture techniques, with limited exploration of regulatory mechanisms. This study investigates the initiation process through histological, biochemical, and molecular approaches. Scales from tissue-cultured bulblets were analyzed for sugar content and gene expression. Results revealed significant increases in sucrose levels at the scale base during culture, paralleled by transcriptomic enrichment in hormone signaling, cell cycle, DNA replication, and sugar metabolism pathways. These findings, validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), offer valuable insights into the molecular basis of bulblet initiation in L. lancifolium, providing a foundation for future research into lily developmental mechanisms.

Hippeastrum, a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Amaryllidaceae family, is widely cultivated for its large, vibrant flowers with diverse petal colors, which have significant ornamental and economic value. However, the mechanisms underlying anthocyanin accumulation in Hippeastrum petals remain poorly understood. To fully explore the involved regulation mechanism was significant for the breeding of Hippeastrum and other Amaryllidaceae family plants. In this study, we selected six Hippeastrum cultivars with distinctly different petal colors. We used metabolomic profiling and high-throughput transcriptomic sequencing to assess varied anthocyanin profiles and associated expression of genes in their biosynthetic pathways. Four key anthocyanins were identified: cyanidin, cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and delphinidin-3-rutinoside. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) correlated the abundance of these four anthocyanins with transcriptomic data, to suggest three regulatory modules. Nine transcription factors families in these modules were identified and some of them were validated using qRT-PCR. Y2H assay isolated some transcription factors interacted with TTG1 (WD40 protein), including MYB3/39/44/306 and bHLH13/34/110, illustrating the possibility of forming MBW complexes. Our study provides a comprehensive characterization of anthocyanin composition. These findings laid a theoretical foundation for future research on the regulatory mechanisms of pigment accumulation and the breeding of Hippeastrum cultivars with novel petal colors.

Lily bulbils originate from the leaf axils of the middle and upper stems of lilies and play an important role in the reproduction of triploid Lilium lancifolium. The development process of lily bulbils results from cell division and expansion, but the roles of plant hormones and carbohydrate metabolism remains unclear. In this study, we treated L. lancifolium with exogenous indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and the auxin polar transport inhibitor N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) and analyzed morphology, transcriptomics, and gene function during bulbil development. The IAA treatment increased the bulbil diameter and total weight per plant, promoting bulbil development. By constructing an association network of characters and modules, we found that bulbil diameter was significantly negatively correlated with the black module genes and positively correlated with the yellow module genes, which are related to plant hormone and carbohydrate metabolism. We identified key genes in the bulblet system due to bulbil and bulblet development similarities. Silencing the LlSAUR36 and LlIAA10 genes in the auxin signaling pathway inhibited bulblet development. In the carbohydrate metabolism pathway, we identified two key genes using silencing methods, LlTPS1 and LlCSLC5, resulting in phenotypes similar to LlSAUR36 and LlIAA10, which inhibited bulbil development. In conclusion, auxin signaling engages in the bulbil development of L. lancifolium by regulating key carbohydrate metabolism genes. This study provides a molecular basis for developing lily bulbils and offers useful clues for the future development of new lily bulbil production methods.

Lilies are economically important monocots known for their ornamental flowers, bulbs, and large genomes. The absence of their genomic information has impeded evolutionary studies and genome-based breeding efforts. Here, we present reference genomes for Lilium sargentiae (lily, 35.66 Gb) and Gloriosa superba (flame lily, 5.09 Gb). The giant lily genome is shaped by recent long terminal repeat retroelements. Phylogenetic analysis reveals diverse, independent origins of lily cultivars. Gene families involved in sucrose and starch metabolism are significantly expanded in the lily genome. Key homologs of XTH22, SOC1, and AP1/FUL-like genes regulate the development, bud growth transition, and floral bud growth transition of lily bulbs. Colchicine biosynthetic gene clusters are identified in G. superba but are absent in L. sargentiae, highlighting independent colchicine evolution in Colchicaceae. These genomic insights enhance understanding of Liliales evolution, providing a foundation for future breeding and molecular research. Lilies are perennial plants with ornamental flowers and large genomes. The authors assemble genomes of two Liliales species, analyze lily phylogeny, flower and stem development (bulbs in lilies, rhizomes in flame lilies), bulb growth transitions, and colchicine biosynthesis.

Soft rot is a major disease restricting the production of colored calla lily, with severe impacts on their ornamental, commercial, and market value, caused by infection with Pectobacterium carotovorum. This study investigated the involvement of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the soft rot response of colored calla lily leaves. Transcriptome sequencing of infected leaves identified 35,175 potential lncRNAs. Differential expression analysis revealed significant upregulation or downregulation of numerous lncRNAs following infection, indicating their potential involvement in the plant's immune response to P. carotovorum. Among these, LNC86472 was identified as a differentially expressed lncRNA that functions as a potential endogenous target mimic (eTM) for miR166a. Meanwhile, miR166a directly targets homeodomain-leucine zipper 15 (HB15) transcripts, which activates immune responses and restricts pathogen invasion. Functional studies involving the transient expression and silencing of LNC86472 and HB15 in colored calla lily leaves demonstrated that overexpression resulted in enlarged lesion sizes and compromised plant immune responses, while silencing them led to the opposite effect. Notably, infection-induced increases in jasmonic acid levels were associated with the downregulation of LNC86472. Further analysis showed that MYC2 directly binds to the LNC86472 promoter to repress its expression. These results suggest that jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated downregulation of LNC86472 releases miR166a, thereby facilitating miR166a-mediated cleavage of HB15 transcripts. This study provides new insights into the role of lncRNAs in the soft rot infection process of colored calla lily.

MADS-box transcription factors play a vital role in the development of reproductive organs and fruits. However, the mechanisms by which MADS-box transcription factors participate in determining the size of organs remain incompletely understood. This study demonstrated that the overexpression of SlMADS48 results in elongated sepals and is accompanied by an elevated gibberellin content, compared with the wild type (WT). The interaction between SlMADS48 and several proteins (SlMC, SlMBP21, SlJOINTLESS, and SlFYFL) involved in sepal development was identified. In addition, the OE-SlMADS48 lines exhibited increased branches and total numbers of flowers. Molecular analysis revealed that SlMADS48 interacted with TM29, FUL1, FUL2, and MBP20, which are associated with inflorescence development. Moreover, SlMDS48 directly targeted the promoter of SlTM3 via the CArG-box motif, reducing its transcript levels. Additionally, the overexpression of SlMADS48 led to a reduction in the size of fruit, together with decreased contents of cytokinins and indole acetic acid (IAA) compared with the WT. Furthermore, SlMADS48 directly combined with the promoters of SlcycD6;1 and SlIAA29 in the cytokinin and auxin pathways, respectively. This research advanced our understanding of SlMADS48’s role in determining organ size and provided valuable insights into target gene selection in tomato breeding programs.

Trichomes play a crucial role in plant resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses, and their development and characteristics vary across different species. This study demonstrates that trichomes of Lilium pumilum exhibit synchronized growth during flower bud differentiation and enhance the plant's adaptability to UV-B radiation and aphid infection. We identified LpNAC48, a NAC family transcription factor (TF), that interacted with the B-box (BBX) family TF LpBBX28, during trichome formation in L. pumilum. Silencing LpNAC48 or LpBBX28 impaired trichome development and reduced trichome density on the outer perianths. We demonstrated that the upstream regulators LpNAC48 and LpBBX28 directly bound to the promoter of the bHLH TF-encoding gene LpGL3-LIKE (LpGL3L) to activate its expression. Moreover, an ABA-responsive element within a 259-bp DNA variation in the LpNAC48 promoter was important for its expression and was bound by the bZIP TF LpbZIP29 during trichome development. This binding activated LpNAC48 expression and contributed to trichome formation. This study provides insights into the role of a small DNA sequence variation in gene expression and trichome traits.

Dynamic miRNA detection using the qRT-PCR technique requires appropriate reference genes to ensure data reliability. Previous studies have screened internal reference genes in plants during embryonic development and various stress treatment, involving relatively few tissues and organs. There is no relevant miRNA study in Lilium henryi Baker and limited research on the optimal miRNA reference genes in lilies, such as 5S, 18S, U6 and Actin. Twelve genes were selected as candidate reference genes whose expression stability was analyzed in petals at different developmental stages and other tissues using various algorithms, such as geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and Delta CT. The results revealed that the optimal combination of reference genes for Lilium henryi Baker petals at different developmental stages was osa-miR166m and osa-miR166a-3p, while that for different tissues of Lilium henryi Baker was osa-miR166g-3p and osa-miR166a-3p.Four important genes related to growth and development regulation, namely, osa-miR156a, osa-miR395b, osa-miR396a-3p, and osa-miR396a-5p, were selected for validation. The findings of the present study could contribute to future investigations onmiRNA expression and the related functions in Lilium henryi Baker while providing important references for the normalization of the miRNA expression in other varieties of lily.

Developing food packaging films loaded with plant extracts is a research hotspot. As natural preservatives, essential oils possess potent antibacterial and antioxidant properties. However, films loaded with essential oils face challenges in use for food preservation and flavor perception because of the strong aroma and volatility of components of the oils. In this study, natural, nontoxic Citrus sinensis essential oil (CSEO) was incorporated into blended films composed of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) and peach gum polysaccharide (PGP), and the film properties were characterized. The CMCS/PGP films exhibited favorable performance (e.g., flexibility and antimicrobial activity). Addition of CSEO significantly improved the ultraviolet (UV)-barrier, oxidation resistance, hydrophobicity, and antimicrobial properties of the composite films. CPC1.0 film (containing 50:50 CMCS/PGP [w/w] and 1.0 % CSEO) showed enhanced elongation at break (99.59 +/- 1.22 %), UV barrier performance (>85 % at 0.2-0.4 mu m), and bactericidal activity (99.12 % for Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus) and 93.62 % for Escherichia coli(E.coli)) compared with CMCS films. Packaging strawberries in CPC1.0 film maintained TSS (7.10 +/- 0.26) and TA (0.77 +/- 0.03) of the fruit, particularly flavor, resulting in a shelf-life of 6-8 days at room temperature. In soil, CPC1.0 film degraded by 78.53 % (by weight) in 10 days. This study shows that C. sinensis essential oil-loaded CMCS/PGP film has potential for application in fruit preservation and flavor retention.

Lily bulbils, which serve as advantageous axillary organs for vegetative propagation, have not been extensively studied in terms of the mechanism of bulbil initiation. The functions of auxin and sucrose metabolism have been implicated in axillary organ development, but their relationship in regulating bulbil initiation remains unclear. In this study, exogenous indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) treatment increased the endogenous auxin levels at leaf axils and significantly decreased bulbil number, whereas treatment with the auxin polar transport inhibitor N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA), which resulted in a low auxin concentration at leaf axils, stimulated bulbil initiation and increased bulbil number. A low level of auxin caused by NPA spraying or silencing of auxin biosynthesis genes YUCCA FLAVIN MONOOXYGENASE-LIKE 6 (LlYUC6) and TRYPTOPHAN AMINOTRANSFERASERELATED 1 (LlTAR1) facilitated sucrose metabolism by activating the expression of SUCROSE SYNTHASES 1 (LlSusy1) and CELL WALL INVERTASE 2 (LlCWIN2), resulting in enhanced bulbil initiation. Silencing LlSusy1 or LlCWIN2 hindered bulbil initiation. Moreover, the transcription factor BASIC HELIX-LOOP-HELIX 35 (LlbHLH35) directly bound the promoter of LlSusy1, but not the promoter of LlCWIN2, and activated its transcription in response to the auxin content, bridging the gap between auxin and sucrose metabolism. In conclusion, our results reveal that an LlbHLH35-LlSusy1 module mediates auxin-regulated sucrose metabolism during bulbil initiation.

Lilium davidii var. willmottiae, known as Lanzhou lily, is a famous edible crop that is mostly distributed in the middle area of Gansu Province in China. In the winter of 2019, symptoms of bulb rot were observed on Lanzhou lilies harvested from Lanzhou, Gansu Province, during storage at the Institute of Grassland, Flowers and Ecology (39°57'55.984" N, 116°20'8.124" E), Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, at an incidence of nearly 50%. The decayed bulb (Fig.1a)was washed under tap water and surface disinfested with 75% ethanol for 1 min, followed by 2.5% sodium hypochlorite for 5 min, and washed with sterile distilled water three times. The 5 mm×5 mm tissue pieces from the junction of the diseased part and the healthy part were clipped, placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and subsequently incubated at 25 °C. Thirteen dominant pure fungal isolates with the same morphological characteristics were obtained by the hyphal-tip method. Three representative isolates LZ-8, LZ-9-2 and LZ-10 were chosen for phylogenetic analyses. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF-1a), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2) sequences were PCR amplified using the primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), EF1-728F/EF1-986R (Carbone and Kohn 1999), and RPB2-5F2/RPB2-7cR (O'Donnell et al. 2022), respectively. BLAST analysis showed that the ITS,TEF-1a, and RPB2 sequences of the isolates LZ-8 (GenBank accession nos. PP422096, PP447248, and PP447251), LZ-9-2 (GenBank accession nos. PP422098, PP447249, and PP447252) and LZ-10 (GenBank accession nos. PP422099, PP447250, and PP447253) had 99.27 to 99.71% identity with multiple GenBank sequences of Trichoderma hamatum, and the three DNA fragments of the three isolates showed 100% sequence identity. A phylogenetic tree based on concatenated sequences of the three genes using maximum -likelihood analyses revealed that the three isolates LZ-8, LZ-9-2 and LZ-10 were in the same clade with T. hamatum strains (Fig.2). One representative isolate, LZ-10, was chosen for morphological studies and test of the pathogenicity. The colony of LZ-10 on PDA appeared white with cotton-shaped aerial hyphae early, which later turned light green to green and formed concentric rings (Fig.1d-1f). At the end of conidiophores, three to six pear-shaped branches were irregularly gathered(Fig.1h). Conidia were ellipsoid with the size of 3.1 to 4.4 × 2.2 to 3.1 µm (n =20) (Fig.1g). These morphological characteristics were consistent with the description of Trichoderma hamatum. (Kamala et al. 2015, Han et al. 2017).To test pathogenicity, healthy bulbs were punctured with disposable sterilized needles and soaked in equal amounts of sterile water and conidial suspension (1×107 conidia/mL) for 30 min respectively. The pathogenicity experiment was repeated three times. After 6 days of inoculation at 25 °C and 80% relative humidity, the surface of the inoculated bulbs produced water-stained spots and mycelium layers(Fig.1b-1c) consistent with the symptoms exhibited by Lilium davidii var. willmottiae bulbs during storage, meanwhile the uninoculated lily bulbs remained symptomless. Trichoderma hamatum was reisolated from the infected bulbs and identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics, fulfilling Koch's postulates. To our knowledge, this is the first report of bulb rot on Lilium davidii var. willmottiae caused by Trichoderma hamatum in China. This study will contribute to a better understanding and controlling of this postharvest disease in Lilium davidii var. willmottiae.

Postharvest diseases in lily plants are prevalent during storage and transportation, leading to potentially catastrophic economic losses for the lily industry. Specifically, bulb rot has been observed in Lanzhou lily (Lilium davidii var. unicolor) during cold storage in Beijing, China. In this study, fungal isolates were obtained from decayed bulbs using a conventional fungal separation method, and these isolates were confirmed to be the causative agent of lily bulb rot, according to Koch postulates. A representative isolate, LZ-3-10, was selected for further identification. Based on morphological features and internal transcribed spacer sequencing results, the LZ-3-10 isolate was identified as Rhizopus arrhizus. Subsequently, an endophytic bacterial strain exhibiting robust antagonistic ability, Bacillus siamensis B55, was screened from the roots of lily plants. Evaluation of its biocontrol ability revealed that strain B55 could effectively protect L. davidii var. unicolor bulbs from infection by LZ-3-10, demonstrating a biocontrol efficacy of 51.2% and significantly reducing the severity of lily Rhizopus rot. In summary, this study identifies R. arrhizus as the cause of postharvest bulb rot in L. davidii var. unicolor and, for the first time, showcases the biocontrol activity of the endophytic bacterial strain B. siamensis B55 against the isolated pathogenic fungus. These findings not only provide insights into lily bulb rot but also highlight the potential of B. siamensis B55 as a biocontrol agent for managing this disease during postharvest storage.

The bHLH (basic Helix-Loop-Helix) transcription factor serves as pivotal controller in plant growth and development. In a previous study, the overexpression of SlUPA-like in Solanum lycopersicum L. Ailsa Craig (AC++) altered the JA (Jasmonic acid) response and endogenous GA (Gibberellic acid) content. However, the detailed regulation mechanism was not fully explored. In the present research, we found that the overexpression of SlUPA-like influenced the accumulation of GA, JA and BR (Brassinolide). RNA-Seq data illustrated that the expression levels of genes related to these plant hormones were significantly affected. Additionally, the interaction of SlUPA-like with SlMYB21, SlMYC2 and SlDELLA was characterized by employing Y2H (Yeast Two-Hybrid) and BiFC (Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation) assay. Furthermore, Dual-LUC (Dual-Luciferase) assay and EMSA (Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay) identified that SlUPA-like directly targeted the E-box motif in the promoter of SlGID2 and activated the transcription of SlGID2. These results shed light on the potential role of SlUPA-like in mediating crosstalk among multiple plant hormones and established a robust theoretical framework for further unraveling the functions of SlUPA-like transcription factors in the context of plant growth and hormone signal transduction.

Lanzhou lily bulbs (Lilium davidii var. unicolor) are Chinese traditional edible fruits; however, industrial benefits are limited owing to ineffective post-harvest preservation technology. This study investigated the effect of 4.5 kJ/m2 ultraviolet (UV)-C radiation and 2.0 g/L L-cysteine (L-cys) treatment on storage quality and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism in lily bulbs. The combined UV-C/L-cys treatment inhibited the increase in decay rate, weight loss, ∆E⁎ and reducing sugar content; delayed the decrease of firmness and starch content; retained aromatic volatile compounds; and reduced pungent compounds. UV-C/L-cys treatment reduced H2O2 content, O2 ·- production rate, lipoxygenase activity and malondialdehyde content by maintaining high ROS-scavenging enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase) activities and substances (total phenolic and ascorbic acid) levels, thereby protecting mitochondrial structure. Mantel test indicated that post-harvest quality and volatile compounds were closely related to ROS metabolism. Hence, UV-C/L-cys treatment can efficiently delay lily bulb senescence by reducing ROS accumulation during storage.

Opisthopappus taihangensis (Anthemideae, Asteraceae), which is rich in bioactive components, produces flowers and leaves with robust fragrances. In this study, we conducted comprehensive metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses to identify changes in terpenoid metabolites and associated gene expression across various O. taihangensis tissues (leaves, buds, and inflorescences at the exposure, initial-bloom, and full-bloom stages). We identified 1370 metabolites using headspace solid-phase micro-extraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/ GC-MS), 308 of which were terpenoid metabolites. The expression of terpenoid synthesis-related genes was relatively consistent with the synthesis of terpenoid metabolites at each examined developmental stage. An analysis of gene networks governing terpenoid synthesis revealed that MCT genes (OtMCT1, OtMCT2, and OtMCT3), TPS genes (OtTPS5, OtTPS9, and OtTPS10), and OtISPS1 may be crucial for synthesizing specific metabolites in different tissues. Additionally, the essential oil extracted from leaves by water distillation showed that thujone and camphor were the predominant components. The considerable antioxidant activity of the leaf essential oil was comparable to that of vitamin C (16 mu g/mL). Notably, its antimicrobial effects against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli growth were greater than those of ampicillin and vancomycin at the same concentrations. Scanning electron microscopy images indicated that the leaf essential oil significantly disrupted bacterial cell structures. This study thoroughly analyzed the network of genes regulating terpenoid metabolites in different O. taihangensis tissues, and elucidated the antioxidant and antibacterial potential of the leaf essential oil, thus providing valuable insights for breeding, molecular characterization, and the potential application of O. taihangensis in developing useful essential oil-based natural products.

Some strains of Bacillus vallismortis have been reported to be efficient biocontrol agents against tomato pathogens. The aim of our study was to assess the biocontrol ability of the endophytic strain BL01 Bacillus vallismortis through in vitro and field trials, as well as to verify its plant colonization ability and analyze the bacterial genome in order to find genes responsible for the biocontrol activity. We demonstrated in a gnotobiotic system and by confocal laser microscopy that the endophytic strain BL01 was able to colonize the endosphere and rhizosphere of tomato, winter wheat and oilseed rape. In vitro experiments demonstrated the inhibition activity of BL01 against a wide range of phytopathogenic fungi and bacteria. BL01 showed biological efficacy in two-year field experiments with tomato plants against black bacterial spotting by 40–70.8% and against late blight by 47.1% and increased tomato harvest by 24.9% or 10.9 tons per hectare compared to the control. Genome analysis revealed the presence of genes that are responsible for the synthesis of biologically active secondary metabolites, which could be responsible for the biocontrol action. Strain BL01 B. vallismortis can be considered an effective biocontrol agent to control both fungal and bacterial diseases in tomato plants.