Abstract Prioritising conservation efforts towards single surrogate species (such as umbrella species) to conserve other sympatric species is a common practice, as it offers a pragmatic approach when distribution data are sparse and funding is constrained. However, the effectiveness of a single umbrella species is context‐dependent, and the utility of umbrella species selected for regional conservation purposes must be evaluated with systematic field data to refine choices at local scales and guide adaptive management. We evaluated the effectiveness of snow leopards Panthera uncia , a commonly used umbrella species in Central Asia's mountain ecosystems, in representing co‐occurring species' conservation needs. Using a multi‐site camera trap dataset spanning over 7000 km 2 , we adopted a multi‐species occupancy modelling (MSOM) framework to quantify similarity among species' habitat preferences at fine spatial scales, while accounting for imperfect detection. We categorised the mammalian community into distinct habitat‐based groups and compared snow leopards with other sympatric species as potential umbrella species based on their representativeness of other species' habitat needs and broader biodiversity patterns. Our results indicate that snow leopards effectively serve as an umbrella for mountain‐endemic species but poorly represent the broader mammal community in total species richness and threatened species richness. Cluster analysis of MSOM results revealed three major habitat groups: (1) alpine meadow specialists, (2) generalists and (3) alpine shrub‐meadow/open woodland specialists. Top umbrella candidates predominantly arise from the generalist and alpine shrub‐meadow/open woodland specialist groups, whereas snow leopards ranked highly for endemic species richness within their own alpine meadow specialist group. Synthesis and applications . These findings underscore the scale‐dependent performance of conservation surrogates showing that broad geographical range overlaps (e.g. based on global distribution maps) can diverge from fine‐scale habitat requirements evaluated with field data. This suggests that conservation actions based on a single charismatic species may miss threats and habitat needs at local scales. We advocate identifying multiple umbrella species to better represent the habitat requirements of a broader species assemblage. Given the growing use of camera trap surveys, our framework provides a path from single‐species to community‐level conservation, thereby guiding targeted monitoring where resources are limited.

Community-driven initiatives aimed at curbing wild animal poaching can effectively mitigate species decline, tailor programs to community needs, and align with community members' preferences. This paper reports on formative data framed within the financial incentives in normative systems (FINS) model. Through in-depth interviews with ethnically Tibetan pastoralists, we find evidence for anti-poaching descriptive and injunctive norms, along with norms endorsing interventions to stop hunting. Our findings indicate that communication regarding wildlife protection is less prevalent within family or friendship groups but more commonly conveyed by governmental and spiritual leaders. The findings suggest anti-poaching efforts could include local community members as well as community leaders and consider existing culturally and spiritually driven attitudes and social norms which are anti-hunting and pro-animal protection.

The construction of the Qinghai-Tibet railway (QTR) parallel to the Qinghai-Tibet highway (QTH) has been associated with concerns about its impact on local wildlife. However, to date, most related research has been conducted after the QTR was built, and there is a lack of evidence of the effect of its construction on wildlife. By comparing ungulate survey data along the QTH between 2001 and 2020, an increase in the migration number of Tibetan antelope in the region from around 2000 to 4000 was observed, despite a rise in traffic on the highway from approximately 1000 to 2000 vehicles per day. The average number of kiangs in each survey along the QTH increased from 18 to 32, and the average number of Tibetan gazelle increased from 14 to 16. The herd sizes of Tibetan antelope, Tibetan gazelle, and kiangs during the construction of the QTR were significantly larger than those after the construction of the QTR. After the construction of the QTR, the number of ungulates along the QTH was negatively correlated with the traffic volume, but positively correlated with the distance between the QTH and the QTR. By comparing the distributions of ungulates before and after QTR construction, it was also found that the number of ungulates decreased in areas where the QTH and QTR were close, but increased where the QTH and QTR were further apart. This suggests that the close proximity of the two linear infrastructures can have a cumulative negative effect on ungulate numbers. These findings provide a reference for the future construction and planning of linear infrastructures on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Wildlife crossing structures (WCSs) enable wildlife to navigate linear infrastructure, promoting interactions and reducing wildlife-vehicle collisions. However, human use and predator-prey dynamics can influence their effectiveness. To assess these factors at the Qinghai-Tibet Railway (QTR), we monitored seven WCSs with infrared cameras from May 2023 to April 2024. Our results showed that 11 species of wild mammals used these structures. Analysis of occurrence probabilities for three sequences (human-wildlife, prey-wolf, and prey-prey) revealed that in five structures, the human-wildlife sequence occurred significantly less than expected; in five structures, the prey-wolf sequence was also lower than expected; and in six structures, the prey-prey sequence was significantly higher than expected. The time intervals of the prey-prey sequences were significantly shorter than those of the human-wildlife and prey-wolf sequences. In addition, time intervals between prey and wolves are shortened when passing through narrower crossing structures. These results indicate that in most of the WCSs along the QTR, wild animals tend to avoid humans, wolves do not pursue prey, prey species tend to aggregate, and narrower crossing structures may increase predation risks. Our findings demonstrate that the WCSs of the QTR effectively assist local wildlife and narrow WCSs should be broadened.

The global biodiversity crisis demands targeted conservation strategies that maximize impact despite limited resources. Surrogate species approaches, particularly using umbrella, keystone, and flagship species, offer practical targets for conservation planning that may indirectly benefit ecosystems. However, selecting target species is often hindered by conceptual ambiguities and inconsistent methodologies. To address these challenges, we present an integrative framework that systematically identifies effective surrogate species through MultiCriteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) combined with big data. Our framework quantifies each species' conservation potential using three indices: an Umbrella index, a Keystone index, and a Flagship index. The Umbrella index assesses habitat overlap using Area of Habitat (AOH) data, the Keystone index is calculated through a network analysis of predator-prey relationships, and the Flagship index analyzes public interest via Google Trends and Baidu Index. These indices are integrated into a composite Effectiveness index using the Multi-Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) model, with sensitivity analysis to evaluate the robustness of species rankings. We applied this framework to Three-River-Source National Park in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Our results identified the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) as the most effective surrogate species among mammals, ranking first in both the Flagship and Keystone indices, and tenth in the Umbrella index, leading to its top position in the composite Effectiveness index. This data-driven, transparent approach enhances objectivity in surrogate species selection, promising more strategic and impactful biodiversity conservation efforts worldwide.

Accurate population data of large carnivores is essential for their effective conservation planning, yet estimating population size is challenging due to their elusive and wide-ranging nature. China is estimated to encompass 60% of the snow leopard Panthera uncia habitat, marking it a crucial pillar for global snow leopard conservation. However, no large-scale population assessment has been conducted despite scattered survey effort accumulating rapidly in recent years. This study combined and standardized existing camera trap survey data from 12 sites collected by four organizations during 2015 ~ 2021 to estimate snow leopard population in an area of 0.36 million km 2 . The representativeness of existing survey was evaluated based on habitat stratification to achieve unbiased population estimation. Spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) models were applied for density estimation and the most optimal model only included habitat rank as density covariate, showing a significant positive correlation with density. An average snow leopard density of 0.90/100 km 2 (0.68 ~ 1.21/100 km 2 ) and a population size of 1,002 individuals (755 ~ 1,341) was estimated for the entire region. Two more conservative estimates of 971 and 978 individuals were generated within two defined survey regions, in which our data has higher representativity. This study presents a practical approach to synthesize existing population survey data for large-scale population assessments of individually identifiable species. The estimated number represents 11 ~ 21% of the global snow leopard population, indicating high conservation value of this region.

Recent years have seen both increased use of financial incentives to promote conservation behavior, and increased interest in understanding how social norms can be utilized to encourage conservation. However, there remains limited understanding of how norms and incentives interact to affect people's willingness to undertake incentivized behaviors. We advance existing research, testing aspects of a theory of social norms and financial incentives to predict and explain conservation behavior. We study a population of ethnically Tibetan pastoralists in Qinghai, China, an area of critical conservation importance both for its role as the source of the drinking water supply for over a billion people downstream and for its ecosystems (including wildlife), where financial incentives for conservation have been introduced. We examine how local yak herders respond to a hypothetical program to reduce their herd size in exchange for a monetary incentive. Appealing to descriptive social norms in favor of joining the program motivates increased participation, and it reduces the likelihood of reversing the herd size reduction when the program ends. However, as the payment size increases, the effect of norms diminishes. Our findings indicate that cultural factors-in this case religious orientation against treating animals as a commodity-can be a stronger motivator than social norms.

Fecal samples are commonly used in conservation genetics for endangered and elusive species such as the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). However, the limited quantity and low quality of endogenous DNA in these samples present a challenge for acquiring genetic and genomic data. Previous studies of snow leopard mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeography have produced inconsistent results, likely due to the limited sequencing length of PCR-based methods. To address this limitation, we performed Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) on 19 fecal samples obtained from the eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, resulting in 6.51-12.72 Gb of raw data per sample. We successfully assembled 17 complete mitogenome sequences (similar to 16,720 bp) and identified 67 SNPs. Phylogeographic analysis revealed two divergent mtDNA lineages with a patristic distance of 0.31%, comparable to the divergence observed between major lineages of lions (0.38%-0.82%) and tigers (0.24%-0.56%). One lineage was predominantly found in the Qilian Mountains, while the other was more broadly distributed across the Sanjiangyuan Region and the Hengduan Mountains. These results reveal a considerable level of mtDNA diversity at a local scale, which was missed in a previous study focusing on short mtDNA segments. Our study demonstrates the promising applicability of mitogenome assembly via NGS of fecal DNA, and we anticipate that it may advance global snow leopard conservation genetics by alleviating technical hurdles and enhancing data sharing.

Previous Qinghai-Tibet railway studies have lacked a comprehensive understanding of wildlife crossing structures (WCSs) distribution and suitability for local wildlife, focusing instead on individual underpass usage. We addressed this gap by modeling the habitat distribution of 11 nationally protected mammal species along the railway using maximum entropy modeling and distribution data, and we found that WCSs density met standards for all species except Tibetan gazelles (Procapra picticaudata), whose average WCSs distance was 1.65 km. After evaluating 23 underpasses with line transects and infrared cameras, we found that all underpasses were used by wildlife, with nine protected mammals recorded, while Tibetan antelopes (Pantholops hodgsonii) used exclusively larger underpasses during migration. Smaller underpasses located further from highways were more effectively used. This first assessment of WCSs distribution and density along the railway, comparing large and small WCSs, recommends prioritizing larger WCSs construction tailored to Tibetan antelope migration needs in future designs.

The Population Assessment of the World's Snow leopards (PAWS) initiative was launched to provide a scientifically robust estimate of global snow leopard population size, as prioritized by range countries in 2017. PAWS resulted in methodological development and training programs in all 12 range countries. PAWS uses model-based and design-based inference for abundance, and occupancy-based methods for distribution surveys and spatial capture-recapture methods for abundance estimation. Tools, guidelines and training assist field practitioners estimate snow leopard abundance at local, national, regional, and global scales. PAWS is supported by all snow leopard range countries, allowing government, NGO, institution, and individual collaboration. Over 159 PAWS surveys were conducted in 2015–21, covering nearly 10% of the species' range with many more planned. PAWS identifies threats, potential climate refugia and the size and distribution of prey populations. National and regional snow leopard estimates are expected by 2023, allowing informed decision making for species conservation.

Abstract Giant trees are pivotal in forest ecosystems, yet our current understanding of their significance is constrained primarily by the limited knowledge of their precise locations and structural characteristics. Amidst escalating human‐induced disturbances globally, there is an urgent need to devise a practical approach to discover and measure giant trees accurately and efficiently. Here, we propose a novel light detection and ranging (lidar)‐based framework designed for the discovery and measurement of giant trees. Our framework integrates cutting‐edge lidar platforms, including spaceborne, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), and backpack lidar, to create an end‐to‐end workflow. The algorithm involved in the proposed framework was compiled into a code package and made available as open source. The method successfully identified the tallest trees in China, including the tallest tree in Asia, a Cupressus austrotibetica with a height of 102.3 m, discovered in Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon in May 2023. This finding has not only established a new record but also demonstrated the efficacy of our proposed framework. Utilising lidar data, we performed meticulous measurements at both individual and stand levels, revealing the unique characteristics of this giant tree. The new framework for the discovery and measurement of giant trees, encompassing detailed procedures and codes, is expected to facilitate the discovery and measurement of giant trees with high efficiency, thus fostering advancements in giant tree ecology.

Wildlife crossing structures (WCSs) are an important measure to protect biodiversity and reduce human-wildlife conflict, especially for bundled linear infrastructure. The aim of this study was to evaluate two “management and behavioral” factors (salt blocks and feces) in relation to two “structural factors” (underpasses’ dimension and distance of bundled linear infrastructure) along Qinghai-Tibet bundled linear infrastructure (Qinghai-Tibet railway alignment runs parallel to the Qinghai-Tibet highway) and Gonghe-Yushu bundled linear infrastructure (Gonghe-Yushu expressway is parallel to the Gonghe-Yushu highway) using infrared cameras. Eight underpasses were monitored in the Qinghai-Tibet railway and six in the Gonghe-Yushu expressway, with half of the induced experimental group and half of the control group in each area. The monitoring shows that the Qinghai-Tibet railway area has richer species diversity than the Gonghe-Yushu expressway area. Salt block and feces induction experiments showed that the relative abundance index (RAI) of the experimental and control groups did not reveal significant differences in both areas. In addition, we found that the wider the width of the underpasses, the higher the utilization rate of kiang (Equus kiang) and wolly hare (Lepus oiostolus). And the distance from the adjacent linear infrastructure was positively correlated with the frequency of wolly hare, while no correlation was found with other species. In summary, this study found that salt block and feces induction could not improve the utilization rate of ungulates to underpasses of bundled linear infrastructure on Tibetan Plateau, and preliminary understood the factors affecting the utilization rate of underpasses.

Abstract Collaborative conservation interventions based on engagement with local communities are increasingly common, especially for large carnivores that negatively impact people's livelihoods and well‐being. However, evaluating the effectiveness of large‐scale community‐based conservation interventions is rarely done, making it problematic to assess or justify their impact. In our study focused on snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in five countries, we show that bespoke and well‐implemented community‐based and conflict management intervention efforts can lead to more sustainable conservation outcomes. Collaborative interventions, spread over about 88,000 km2 of snow leopard habitat, reduced livestock depredation and disease and associated economic costs. Additionally, they generated conservation‐linked livelihoods and enhanced community decision‐making, leading to more positive behavioral intent toward snow leopards and improved communities’ cooperation, economic security, and confidence. Our results provide lessons learned and recommendations for practitioners and governments to alleviate conflicts and foster coexistence with snow leopards and large carnivores more broadly. These include prioritizing locally led tailored solutions based on the PARTNERS principles, recognizing local community rights in conservation decision‐making, and recognizing the role of social norms in ensuring accountability.

Abstract The Kunming‐Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework requires effective actions to bend the curve of biodiversity loss by 2030. Wildlife trade, a direct drive of biodiversity decline, calls for more effective regulations to both protect wildlife populations in the wild and facilitate sustainable use of wildlife resources to meet human needs. This call has become particularly urgent in light of the COVID‐19 pandemic. In 2021, China's List of State Key Protected Wild Animals, a list of fauna under the strictest protection by national legislation, has been updated in the year 2021, 32 years after its first release, increasing its coverage (from the original 13%) an 11% of species across taxa. Combined with the updated List of State Protected Terrestrial Wild Animals which covers species with lower protection priority, these two national lists already cover 77% terrestrial vertebrate species of China. Such a blacklist approach, placing threatened species under a list of legal protection, is a common practice globally in species conservation. We discussed pros and cons of this dominant strategy and further explored the potential integration with a whitelist approach, listing all wildlife and only permitting regulated uses of certain species. We propose a mixed approach combining black and whitelists at different administration levels which could perhaps be first adopted in China. This is mainly due to the fact that in addition to illegal harvesting from the wild, traded wildlife in China are mostly from captive breeding and related laundering of wild‐caught animals.

In 2018, an adult male of a small-sized Tube-nosed Bat (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Murina) was captured at an arid cave located on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in Yushu City, Qinghai Province, China. Despite external morphological similarities with those of M. harpioloides and M. chrysochaetes, the individual in question displays explicit craniodental differences that distinguish it from either species. Morphological and morphometric evidence, coupled with phylogenetic analyses utilizing the mitochondrial COI gene, confirmed that it represents a distinct and still unknown species of Murina, described herewith as M. yushuensis sp. nov. Our research highlights the importance of future surveys aimed at exploring cryptic species diversity in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and adjacent under-surveyed regions.

The Chinese mountain cat (Felis bieti) is among the most elusive and endangered felid species worldwide and is endemic to the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, China. Currently, the cat is assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List based on its ‘likely small population’, ‘high likelihood of fragmentation’, and “probably declining” trend. Specifically, two human activities were identified by the previous studies as the major threats that this unique lineage is faced with, as the large-scale pika poisoning program and illegal hunting prevailing in the area. However, during our monitoring of a breeding family discovered in the Sanjiangyuan Region, two cats of the family were found dead and were most likely killed by free-ranging dogs. Moreover, following genetic analysis indicated that both cats were genetically contaminated by local domestic cats. Consequently, based on the examination of the carcasses, associate genetic analysis, and survey on free-ranging dogs, in this study we identified two so far overlooked threats for the Chinese mountain cats, as the killing by free-ranging dogs and genetic contamination from domestic cats. These threats mark the tricky balance among humans, domestic animals and wildlife in both historical and recently burgeoning human activities, which requires further investigation, research and conservation efforts.

Snow leopards ( Panthera uncia ) have long co-existed with livestock herding people across Asia’s high mountains. Multiple use landscapes however imply potential competition for shared resources, livestock predation, and the risk of retaliatory killing of predators. Community-based conservation is a central pillar for supporting people’s livelihoods and safeguarding predators and their habitat. Based on the theory of planned behavior, we examined the factors that shape herders’ tolerance of snow leopards. Our questionnaire-based study was conducted in the Sanjiangyuan Region, China, encompassing four communities with varying livelihoods, experiences with livestock depredation and levels of exposure to community conservation interventions. Our results showed that respondents generally held positive views towards snow leopards, although women tended to have relatively more negative views towards snow leopards compared with men. Current household income was largely dependent on caterpillar fungus rather than livestock. Social norms around religion and the role of community leaders in our study area seemed to be the main determinants of the generally benign association of people with wildlife, overshadowing potential influences of community-based conservation interventions. Our work suggests that conservations programs will be aided through collaborations with communities and religious institutions, and that conservationists must proactively engage with women as significant actors in conservation.

Community-based conservation efforts represent an important approach to facilitate the coexistence of people and wildlife. A concern, however, is that these efforts build on existing community structures and social norms, which are commonly dominated by men. Some biodiversity conservation approaches may consequently neglect women’s voices and deepen existing inequalities and inequities. This paper presents two community case studies that draw upon the knowledge and experience gained in our snow leopard conservation practice in pastoral and agro-pastoral settings in Mongolia and India to better understand women’s roles and responsibilities. In these settings, roles and responsibilities in livestock management and agriculture are strongly differentiated along gender lines, and significant gaps remain in women’s decision-making power about natural resources at the community level. We argue that context-specific and gender-responsive approaches are needed to build community support for conservation actions and leverage women’s potential contributions to conservation outcomes.

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