The foundation for the efficient utilization of potassium resources in Salt Lake brine is to reveal the structural characteristics of the solution, analyze the crystallization behavior process, and its correlation. This study investigated ionic hydration and binding structures in K2SO4-MgSO4 mixed solutions using synchrotron X-ray scattering. Meanwhile, the crystallization behavior of mixed solution droplets was further studied using in situ Raman spectroscopy technology. Research has shown that as the mass fraction of MgSO4 increases, the hydrogen bond network structure is disrupted in the solution. In the mixed solution, Mg2+ competes with K+ for SO42-, promoting the transformation of the K+-SO42- binding form from a bidentate contact ion pair to a monodentate contact ion pair, forming multi-ion clusters such as K+-SO42--Mg2+. Under low humidity (RH < 40%), the droplets form a colloidal structure due to Mg2+-SO42- chain MCIP, resulting in a 60-92% decrease in water loss rate (k = 0.0059-0.0179 s-1) compared to pure K2SO4 (k = 0.0741 s-1). In addition, the colloidal interfacial layer in the mixed droplets significantly delayed the nucleation and crystallization of K2SO4. This study provides a theoretical basis for extracting potassium sulfate from sulfate-type Salt Lake brine.

Abstract Single-atom catalysts (SACs) are promising for the electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR) owing to their maximum metal utilization and well-defined active sites. However, the low density of active sites and inadequate mass transport limit their electrocatalytic performance. Here, we report a highly ordered hierarchical porous Ni SAC incorporating nanoconfined ionic liquids (ILs) for CO2RR. The interconnected macropores and mesopores provide efficient transport pathways, while hydrophobic ILs nanoconfined within the microporous network enhance local CO2 availability. The hybrid catalyst delivers nearly unity CO Faradaic efficiency and enhanced partial current densities up to 32 mA cm–2, outperforming conventional Ni–N–C catalysts by 220%. Moreover, its ability to maintain high activity under diluted CO2 conditions further supports enhanced local CO2 availability enabled by the nanoconfined ILs. Operando and in situ spectroscopies suggest enhanced catalytic engagement of Ni sites and significantly enhanced mass transfer enabled by the hierarchical porous structure and nanoconfinement of ILs. Density functional theory calculations further reveal that the ILs modulate the electronic structure of Ni sites and lower the formation energy of the key intermediates. This synergistic integration of hierarchical porosity and local microenvironment engineering offers a viable pathway for advancing high-performance electrocatalysis.

Salt-lake brine, with its vast lithium reserves, represents a crucial supply for the world. However, conventional lithium extraction technologies are often challenged by high energy consumption and/or poor environmental compatibility. Herein, we develop a solar-evaporation-driven, efficient, and green lithium extraction system. Its core is a multilayer evaporation-separation floating fiber-based composite membrane. The upper evaporation layer achieves a broad-spectrum absorption of 95% and an evaporation efficiency of 94.8% under 1 sun, whereas the underlying ion-separation layer consists of an ultra-thin (similar to 57 nm) polyamide film with a tunable pore size. The two layers are tightly coupled, and the negative pressure generated by solar evaporation provides the driving force for lithium ion (Li+) transport across the polyamide film. The system achieves a Li+ flux of 9.1 mg m(-2) h(-1) and a Li (+) selectivity of 5.2 at a high salinity of 1 g L-1, demonstrating excellent anti-fouling capability and operational durability. This work offers an innovative technological pathway for the green and low-carbon development of lithium resources from salt-lake.

Photo-Fenton technology is a successful approach for rapid removal of organic pollutants from sewage. However, the poor photogenerated carrier separation efficiency and inefficient Fe2+/Fe3+ conversion cycle hinder its practical application. Constructing heterostructures and introducing oxygen vacancies have been shown to be effective means of improving photo-Fenton performance. Herein, through a vacancy synergized heterostructure constructing strategy, a composite of one-dimensional (1D) FeWO4 nanorods and three-dimensional (3D) oxygen-vacancy rich In2O3 microflowers composite (FeW-O-4@In2O3) was fabricated via a stepwise hydrothermal method, functioning as a photo-Fenton catalyst for tetracycline (TC) degradation. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy confirmed the enrichment of oxygen vacancies in the heterojunction, which effectively trap photogenerated carriers. Additionally, the interface In-Ov-In-O-Fe bridge-bonds promote electron transfer from In2O3 to FeWO4. Photoluminescence spectra (PL), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and transient photocurrent analyses demonstrate that the built-in electric field (IEF) formed at the FeWO4/In2O3 heterojunction interface facilitates the migration and separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. The optimal catalyst, FeWO4@In2O3-0.5, can remove 100% of TC within 50 min upon visible-light illumination, significantly outperforming pure FeWO4 (64.1%) and In2O3 (57.3%). Furthermore, the apparent degradation rate-constant of TC by FeWO4@In2O3-0.5 is approximately 3.6 times and 4.4 times higher than that of FeWO4 and In2O3, respectively. Radical scavenging tests and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy confirmed that superoxide radicals (center dot O-2(-)) are the dominant reactive substances in the photo-Fenton reaction. Additionally, the FeWO4@In2O3-0.5 heterojunction exhibits excellent resistance to aqueous matrix interference and superior stability. This strategy helps enhance the photo-Fenton activity of Z-Scheme heterojunctions by constructing oxygen vacancies and "electron bridges."

Porous organic cage (POC) membranes featuring interconnected sub-nano channels offer a promising path for nanoscale ion sieving. However, their application in desalination is often hindered by inherently large sieving-window sizes and structural instability. To address this challenge, this work reports an orderly competition interfacial polymerization (OCIP) strategy to fabricate crosslinked POC membranes for elevated desalination performance. By leveraging the differential diffusion and reactivity of (1S,2S)-(+)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane (DACH) and polyethyleneimine (PEI), the surface chemistry and pore architecture of Tp-DACH/PEI membranes were finely modulated. Pulsed-field gradient nuclear magnetic resonance (PFG-NMR) measurements and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations confirmed that the faster diffusion of DACH relative to PEI facilitates the preferential formation of an initial beta-ketoenamine-linked POC framework during the OCIP process. The subsequent participation of low-diffusion PEI in a competitive polymerization system enables the increased crosslinking density, and introduction of surface positive charges. This dual-monomer synergy effectively reduces the sieving window size to 3.9 & Aring; and narrows the pore size distribution. The enhanced size exclusion coupled with the Donnan effect endows the crosslinked POC membranes with a high water permeability of 6.4 L m(-2) h(-1) bar(-1) and a NaCl rejection of 95.5%, surpassing the desalination performance of the state-of-the-art POC membranes. Moreover, the membrane exhibits excellent acid resistance, antifouling capability, as well as stable desalination performance during 120 h continuous operation. Our findings establish OCIP as a facile and scalable pathway for achieving high-performance nanoscale ion sieving in robust POC membranes.

Graphitic nitrogen (N) is the optimal N configuration for peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation, yet its formation is poorly controllable and usually scarce in N-doped carbon catalysts. Herein, a novel zigzag “N-C-C-S” engineering strategy via sulfur (S)-assisted doping is developed to fabricate S, N co-doped porous carbons (SxN-PCs). Precise tuning of S/N ratio induces N configuration reconstruction, increasing graphitic N content. S0.57N-PC affords a 3.1-fold enhancement in PMS activation activity, completely removing bisphenol A (BPA) with a high reaction rate constant (0.597min-1). The “N-C-C-S” moiety enables dynamic switching of reaction mechanisms from radical-initiated degradation to 1O2-mediated mineralization via tailored electronic states of graphitic N. Characterizations and theoretical calculations reveal that S atoms can occupy carbon matrix defects, triggering electron redistribution between adjacent N and C atoms to lower the energy barrier for graphitic N formation. Furthermore, the “N-C-C-S” moiety forms an electron-delocalized system that modulates graphitic N to a moderately electron-enriched state, preserving HSO5- adsorption capacity while reducing the energy barrier of PMS decomposition. This optimized electronic state of graphitic N stabilizes active O* intermediates and reduces their formation energy barrier, thereby promoting 1O2 generation. A continuous-flow system using S0.57N-PC@PVDF membrane demonstrates exceptional durability over 36h in real-world wastewater treatment.

Thin-film composite (TFC) membranes, featuring independently engineered layers, offer a compelling solution for efficient organics/salt mixture fractionation. While polyamide membranes enable high-efficiency removal of organic compounds, the simultaneous retention of divalent ions hinders their potential for organics/salt mixture differentiation. This work introduces a new class of loosely structured TFC membranes featuring microporous polyesteramide (PEA) nanofilms, fabricated through an in-situ interfacial polymerization (IP) strategy. This novel design leverages tobramycin (TOB), an aqueous monomer abundant in hydroxyl and amino functionalities, polymerized with trimesoyl chloride (TMC) on Kevlar hydrogel substrates. The unique molecular characteristics of TOB -including its moderate reactivity, large size, and three-dimensional twisted conformation- are key to forming an intact yet loosely microporous selective layer for effective organics/salt separation. Furthermore, the formation of abundant surface carboxyl groups from hydrolyzed acyl chloride groups imparted strong negative charges across a broad pH range. The optimized membranes exhibited an exceptional combination of high water permeance (50.8 L m-2 h-1 bar-1), and excellent rejection for diverse organic dyes, including direct yellow 12 (99.7 %), Congo red (99.3 %), methyl blue (99.6 %), and direct red 23 (99.2 %). Importantly, this high dye rejection was achieved alongside a minimal NaCl rejection (6.3 %) in dye/salt mixtures, resulting in a high methyl blue/NaCl selectivity factor of 187.4. These performance metrics underscore the significant promise of these engineered PEA membranes for efficient dye/salt wastewater purification.

The remediation of toxic heavy metals from aqueous systems remains a persistent challenge, necessitating separation materials that combine efficiency, sustainability, mechanical robustness, and practical applicability. This study presents a self-supporting rigid-in-flexible composite membrane as a material-structural innovation. Specifically, green-synthesized 4 A zeolite (4 A-Z) crystals, derived from natural kaolin, are embedded into an electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibrous network. This configuration combines a hierarchically porous architecture with multi-mechanistic capture, allowing rapid and efficient Pb(II) removal on a single platform. The resulting composite membrane achieves a maximum Pb(II) adsorption capacity of 87.64 mg/g and a near-complete removal efficiency of 99.92%. Its adsorption kinetics are substantially enhanced, with an initial adsorption rate 7.44 times that of pure PAN membranes. Mechanistic analyses via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and site-energy distribution analyses reveal a triadic pathway involving ion exchange, electrostatic attraction, and surface complexation. Under practical conditions, the membrane maintains Pb(II) removal efficiencies of 83.86% in river water, 66.04% in saline water, and 87.50% in mining effluent. Additionally, it exhibits a 21.8% increase in tensile strength relative to pristine PAN, retains 77.37% of its initial adsorption capacity after five adsorption-desorption cycles, and performs effectively in dynamic column filtration, indicating suitability for continuous-flow operations. Collectively, this work combines green synthesis, rational structural design, and multi-mechanistic functionality into a membrane platform, offering a scalable and sustainable approach to advanced water purification.

Photo-Fenton technology is considered an effective method for removing organic pollutants from water. In this work, a novel Mn-doped FeWO4 (Mn-FeWO4) photocatalyst was synthesized via a one-step hydrothermal method and applied for the photo-Fenton degradation of tetracycline (TC). The optimal Mn-FeWO4-0.05 achieved 100% removal of TC within 60 min under visible light irradiation with a degradation rate constant of 0.0793 min−1, which is 4.5 times higher than that of pristine FeWO4. Systematic characterization revealed that Mn2+ ions were successfully incorporated into the FeWO4 lattice, inducing lattice expansion and narrowing the bandgap from 2.37 eV to 2.25 eV, while also adjusting the conduction and valence band positions. This modulation significantly enhanced visible light absorption and promoted the separation and migration of photogenerated electron–hole pairs. In addition, the Mn2+/Mn3+ and Fe2+/Fe3+ dual redox cycles ensure the continuous generation of reactive oxygen species. Radical trapping experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy demonstrated that superoxide radicals (•O2−) and photogenerated holes (h+) were the dominant reactive species, while singlet oxygen (1O2) and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) played auxiliary roles. Moreover, Mn-FeWO4-0.05 exhibited excellent stability, strong anti-interference ability against common anions, and high degradation efficiency toward various pollutants.

Rational design of metal-acid bifunctional catalysts is crucial for steering selectivity in tandem catalysis, yet conventional metal/zeolite systems often suffer from diffusion-imposed limitations that hinder intermediate transport. Herein, we report a diethanolamine-assisted alkaline treatment (DEA-AT) strategy to reconstruct 13 zeolite into a hierarchical framework featuring radially aligned, exterior-connected mesoporous channels (13-DEA-AT). This architecture markedly improved the accessibility of intermediate cyclohexene to Br & oslash;nsted acid sites and strengthened metal-acid cooperation in benzene hydroalkylation. As a result, Ru/13-DEA-AT catalysts delivered markedly enhanced performance, achieving a cyclohexylbenzene yield of 35.2%, benzene conversion of 62.1%, and a formation rate of 49.6 mmolCHB & centerdot;gcat-1 & centerdot;h-1, surpassing both conventionally alkali-treated Ru/13-AT (30.6% conversion, 11.6% CHB yield, 31.0 mmolCHB & centerdot;gcat-1 & centerdot;h-1) and pristine Ru/13 catalysts (33.1% conversion, 21.6% CHB yield, 30.5 mmolCHB & centerdot;gcat-1 & centerdot;h-1). Systematic investigations revealed that the DEA-induced hierarchical reconstruction facilitated the rapid migration of cyclohexene intermediates within the zeolite framework, as reflected by an increase in the apparent cyclohexene diffusion coefficient from 1.81 & times; 10-5 cm2 & centerdot;s-1 for Ru/13100 to 6.42 & times; 10-5 cm2 & centerdot;s-1 for Ru/13100-DEA-AT, where shortened diffusion pathways and enhanced accessibility of Br & oslash;nsted acid sites promote intermediate transport and transformation. These findings establish pore-environment engineering as a generalizable strategy to regulate intermediate transformations through metal-acid synergy, providing guidance for the design of next-generation multifunctional tandem catalysts.

Microwave-assisted ionothermal strategies offer an effective pathway for rapid zeolite crystallization under mild conditions, while conventional ionothermal approaches are still constrained by prolonged crystallization cycles that limit their industrial applicability. Herein, we report a microwave-activated, ionic liquid-mediated synthesis strategy that enables the precise modulation of crystallization kinetics and composite assembly. By introducing ZSM-5 seeds into the ionic liquid system, the nucleation and growth of AlPO4-5 were significantly accelerated, reducing crystallization time by up to 75% (optimal condition: 60 min). Among various imidazolium-based ionic liquids, [BMMIm]Br demonstrated an optimal balance of hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions, yielding composite zeolites with high surface area (350 m2·g−1) and large pore volume (0.28 cm3·g−1). Comprehensive characterization (XRD, SEM-EDX, NH3-TPD) confirmed the formation of well-defined ZSM-5/AlPO4-5 core–shell structures and revealed tunable acid site distributions depending on the ionic liquid used. In methanol to olefins (MTO) reactions, the composite catalyst exhibited outstanding selectivity towards light olefins (C2=–C4=: 72.84%), markedly outperforming the individual ZSM-5 and AlPO4-5 components. The superior catalytic behavior is primarily attributed to the synergistic effect of hierarchical acid site tuning and the integrated core–shell architecture, which together optimize reaction selectivity. This strategy provides a promising route for the rational design of high-performance zeolites with significant industrial applicability.

Textile wastewater poses a significant environmental challenge that demands effective treatment. Membrane separation offers a promising solution, with high-flux tight ultrafiltration membranes recognized as an effective technology for dye separation. Polyamide amine (PAMAM), a dendritic macromolecule renowned for its regular structure, high monodispersity, excellent solubility, and tunable molecular weight, has emerged as a promising material for membrane fabrication. This study introduces a novel, eco-friendly, and time-efficient method for preparing polymer composite membranes through one-step co-deposition of dopamine (DA) and PAMAM, predominantly utilizing Michael addition and Schiff base reactions. The incorporation of ammine-rich PAMAM imparts ultra-high hydrophilicity to the membranes (contact angle of 38 degrees), facilitating strong adhesion of water molecules to the membrane surface. The effects of co-deposition time and concentrations of DA and PAMAM on the separation performance of the resulting membranes were systematically investigated. Notably, the optimal membrane demonstrated a high water flux (126.1 L m-2h- 1 bar- 1), primarily due to the incorporation of PAMAM, which resulted in a looser selective separation layer. Furthermore, the membrane demonstrated excellent rejection of methyl blue (MB) at 98.9 % and low rejection os methyl orange (MO) at 13.2 %, making it well-suited for the selective separation of mixed dyes. Our approach offers a sustainable and technologically advanced solution for addressing resource recovery from textile wastewater.

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease that originates from dental plaque and is characterized by excessive accumulation of substances such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to destruction of periodontal tissue. At present, the main treatment methods, such as local mechanical debridement and antibiotic delivery, are not only difficult to effectively solve the intractable bacterial biofilm, but also difficult to improve the excessive inflammatory response and regenerate the damaged periodontal tissue. In this paper, we proposed that the FeCuMOF formed by Fe/Cu co-coordination, combined with the tannic acid lipoic acid hydrogel system with antibacterial and antioxidant ability to form pTL-FeCuMOF hydrogel. The addition of hydrogel can improve the biosafety of FeCuMOF and realize the slow release of FeCuMOF nanozyme. The released FeCuMOF nanozymes have antibacterial and biofilm-fighting properties. At the same time, as a nanozyme, it can clear a variety of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by mimicking superoxide dismutase (SOD) and its ability to clear ABTS radical. In addition, the pTL-FeCuMOF nanozyme hydrogel platform can reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines and increase anti-inflammatory cytokines, thereby alleviating periodontitis inflammation and accelerating tissue regeneration. All in all, this multifunctional nanozyme hydrogel slowly release platform (pTL-FeCuMOF) provides an ideal strategy for the treatment of periodontitis.

The limited mass transfer kinetics and low inherent catalytic activity of catalyst are the main bottlenecks to boost the heterogeneous activation efficiency of peroxymonosulfate (PMS). Herein, B, N dual-doped porous carbon (BNC-X) nanoframeworks with large specific surface area (1085.3-1127.6 m2 g- 1) and dual-functional N-B sites are constructed as PMS activators to achieve ultrafast adsorption and oxidation of microcontaminants. The optimized BNC-8 displays greatly improved adsorption and catalytic activity, affords an ultrahigh tetracycline (TC) adsorption capacity of 1413 mg g- 1, and can remove 83.7 % of concentrated TC (100 mg/L) just within 10 min, outperforming most state-of-the-art carbon materials. The preconcentration of reactants on the surface of catalyst develops a confined reaction space for PMS and target contaminant to promote the in-situ activation of PMS to selectively produce surface-bound radicals, and accelerate the decomposition of organic pollutant with an elevated mass transfer rate. The adsorption kinetics and theoretical calculations reveal that the incorporation of B into N-doped carbon network develops nanoscale adsorption-oxidation dual centers (N-B sites), tunes the chemical and electronic properties of carbon matrix, as well as maximizes the utilization efficiency of PMS, thereby facilitating the generation of surface-bound SO4 center dot- through lowering the energy barrier thermodynamically for PMS activation. Additionally, the cooperation of catalytic oxidation of BNC-8 and membrane separation enables rapid removal of flowing contaminant. This work integrates the advantages of adsorption and catalytic oxidation in PMS activation and develops a valuable candidate for water treatment.

This study presents a Ca-doped CaCO3/g-C3N4 composite with cyano groups (Ca-CCN), synthesized via a recrystallization-thermal polymerization method, for efficient tetracycline (TC) degradation through a visiblelight-driven photo-Fenton process. Comprehensive characterization and density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that dual modifications-electron-withdrawing -C equivalent to N groups and Ca2+ doping-synergistically enhance visible-light absorption, promote photogenerated carrier separation, and suppress charge recombination. The in situ-formed CaCO3 further improves tetracycline adsorption capacity. These structural advantages result in a reaction rate constant for Ca-CCN (k = 0.0299 min-1) that is 8.3-fold higher than pristine g-C3N4 (k = 0.0036 min-1). Radical trapping experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis identify holes (h+) and superoxide anions (center dot O2-) as the dominant reactive species. A plausible degradation pathway is proposed based on LC-MS analysis and computational simulations. This work provides an effective strategy for designing high-performance photocatalysts for antibiotic wastewater remediation through defect and heteroatom coengineering.

Precisely tuning the micro-nanoscale characteristics and synergistic effect of metal-acid sites to regulate the distribution of hydroconversion products are significant but challenging. The protonated carbocation intermediates triggered by tandem reaction on metal-acid region hinder target product formation due to their high reactivity and instability. Supported M/Zeolite hydroconversion catalysts, which often excel in simple synthesis, ease of separation and recyclability. However, they usually consist of sterically unconstrained metal centers which are isolated from acid sites, only providing limited coupling-selectivity to target product. Herein, metal nanoparticles enveloped in acidic zeolite frameworks were developed and used for investigating the process of hydroalkylation of benzene to cyclohexylbenzene. We show that appropriate metal encapsulation comprising adequate efficient metal-acid units successfully avoids the more thermodynamically favorable hydrogenation of cyclohexene to cyclohexane, but steers to alkylation of cyclohexene with benzene to cyclohexylbenzene. This resulted in the highest cyclohexylbenzene yield of 47.7% among the reported work, and surpassed the performance of all supported M/Zeolite catalysts. Experimental and theoretical results supported that the abundant bifunctional metal-acid units enhance the activation frequency and probability of intermediate cyclohexene. This work might provide insights for the integration strategy of dual active site and guidance for the construction of efficient "metal-acid balance" in tandem reactions.

Membrane distillation (MD) has emerged as a promising desalination technology owing to its moderate operating conditions, compatibility with renewable energy, insensitivity to feed salinity, and high-quality permeate. As sustainable development becomes increasingly important, it is crucial to address the environmental implications of green chemistry within MD process. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in green membrane fabrication techniques. It highlights the utilization of less-toxic and non-toxic solvents, bio-based polymers, and solvent-free methods, all aimed at minimizing environmental impact and enhancing membrane production sustainability. Additionally, the review discusses the integration of MD with renewable energy sources to improve thermal efficiency and reduce water production costs. This includes localized heating using photothermal materials and external heating from solar, geothermal, and waste heat sources. By reducing reliance on non-renewable energy sources and optimizing energy consumption, these integrations are instrumental in advancing the sustainability of MD. Finally, the review identifies current challenges in sustainable MD and proposes potential research directions to overcome these issues, thereby contributing to the further development and implementation of more sustainable and efficient MD technologies.

Adsorption techniques are crucial for removing high and trace levels of heavy metal pollutants from water, enabling effective pollution control without causing secondary contamination. Achieving "all-rounder" adsorbents with high capacity, efficiency, speed, and cost-effectiveness is challenging. Materials with structural defects, firm surface charges, and porous structures are ideal for rapid and efficient mass transfer. Herein, using a "homologous transformation" strategy, we converted abundant kaolin into 4A and Na-P1 zeolites-based porous silicate adsorbents with enhanced surface active sites and optimized adsorption pathways. Site energy analysis confirmed that these upgraded structures have high-density, high-energy adsorption sites, facilitating rapid Pb (II) removal from water. These zeolite-based adsorbents exhibit exceptional Pb(II) adsorption capacities (416.60 mg/g for 4A and 400.21 mg/g for Na-P1) and ultra-fast initial rate constants (409.84 and 617.28, which are 174.62 and 263.01 times greater than those of kaolinite; and 56.56 and 85.19 times greater than those of commercial activated carbon, respectively). DFT calculations verified strong adsorption forces for Pb(II) (adsorption energy: -0.52 eV). Removal efficiencies reached 99.75 % for 4A and 99.96 % for Na-P1 zeolite-based adsorbents, ensuring treated water is safe and supports seed germination and plant root growth. These adsorbents also perform well in the presence of interfering ions like Zn(II), Cu(II), Cd(II), and Ni(II). After 10 regeneration cycles, they retain over 73 % of their original capacity, demonstrating an optimal balance among capacity, speed, efficiency, and interference resistance, aligning with sustainable development principles of "from nature, for nature".