The exceptional climbing capabilities of geckos have inspired extensive research into adhesive robotic systems. But their adaptability and flexibility are severely weakened due to the lack of suitable sensory system that plays a significant role in the environmental interaction of biological geckos. Here, we propose a novel bio-inspired multi-modal flexible tactile sensor (MFTS) synergistically integrating triboelectric, piezoresistive and piezoelectric materials. MFTS effectively sensorizes the gecko-inspired foot, enabling the perception of complex adhesion-related environmental information including adhesion states, behaviors, surface features, external loads and vibrations. Furthermore, the capabilities of MFTS are demonstrated on gecko-inspired robot in simulated space environment, exhibiting robust perception abilities for the robot's landing, motion gait, surface transitions, and impact sensing and positioning. This innovative design establishes a transformative framework for the development of versatile adhesion-related sensory system, which enables enhanced environmental interaction and ultimately endows gecko-inspired adhesive robotic systems with remarkable adaptability and flexibility.

Quadruped dry-adhesive climbing robots require ankle joints to meet conflicting demands in adhesion and detachment. The ankle should be compliant to form conformal contact during adhesion, yet stiff to transmit peeling moments during detachment. Wall-angle uncertainty and varying peeling difficulty make fixed-stiffness ankles and passive compliance alone insufficient. This paper presents a miniaturized variable-stiffness ankle joint (VSAJ) that integrates a Kresling origami pneumatic actuator with granular jamming to enable rapid stiffness switching and active rotation for wall-angle compensation. Within an approximately 1 cm form factor, VSAJ achieves 2.4× tuning in bending stiffness, 2.6× tuning in torsional stiffness, and up to 0.16 rad of active rotation. Two adhesion strategies and two detachment strategies are developed and validated through single leg experiments and full-robot climbing demonstrations. The results show robust, versatile, and high-performance adhesion and detachment.

Achieving realistic facial expressions is a central goal in humanoid robot head research. Current methods for determining facial drive points, often based on FACS and design experience, are subjective and prone to bias. This study proposes a quantitative method for selecting facial drive point positions based on optical motion capture and interpolation reconstruction, providing a set of 3D coordinates. On this basis, we further propose a rapid positioning method for robotic drive points applicable to diverse human bionic subjects. Motion data of 238 reflective markers were captured from volunteers performing six basic and one arbitrary facial expression to represent facial movement characteristics. Drive areas were defined based on facial muscle distribution and movement patterns, and the maximum displacement point in each area was calculated using TPS interpolation and displacement field reconstruction to obtain full-face drive point coordinates. For diverse human bionic subjects, proportional correspondences between their inherent facial features and the drive point parameters established in this study were calculated, and new facial drive points were positioned through scaling. To validate the approach, based on the results, a 19-degree-of-freedom humanoid head prototype was built, realizing six basic expressions with recognition rates exceeding 90

A central challenge in bio-robotics is to create machines that can integrate into and illuminate natural ecosystems. The Chinese Yangtze Alligator—a critically endangered species exhibiting exceptionally agile spine-leg coordination honed by its terrestrial-aquatic transition—offers a unique model to address this challenge. Yet, existing alligators-like robots fail to capture such biological fidelity due to insufficient actuation, simplified mechanics, and the absence of adaptive control policies. Here, we introduce the Spine-Legged Adversarial Imitation and Reinforcement Learning (SLAIR) framework, which for the first time leverages deep reinforcement learning to master this coordination. By retargeting biological motion data from Yangtze alligators and integrating impedance control to produce natural compliance, our controller achieves adaptive spine-leg coordination in a custom 24-DOFs robot. A variational autoencoder (VAE) generalizes across terrain, while a dual-critic architecture robustly fuses imitation and task rewards. This enables agile locomotion (0.32 m/s, 360° turns in 3.5 s) with a 46.7% reduction in cost of transport. Crucially, the robot’s biomimetic fidelity was validated in the field, where it elicited natural curiosity and approach behavior from wild Yangtze alligators—demonstrating its potential as a transformative tool for conservation biology.

Slender rod-climbing robots require end-effectors that are lightweight, capable of supporting large axial loads, and able to switch reliably between attachment and detachment during cyclic locomotion. However, existing soft coiling actuators struggle to balance three-dimensional (3D) winding capability, load-bearing performance, structural lightweighting, and controllable release. Herein, we present a fabric-based adhesive winding actuator (FAWA) inspired by biological adhesion–coiling mechanisms. The actuator integrates a wrinkle-guided pleated chamber, constraining-layer bladder, and biomimetic dry adhesive interface within a lightweight fabric pneumatic architecture. This coupled design enables 3D helical winding around rod-like objects while simultaneously supporting adhesive load transfer and release regulation. Experimental results showed that the actuator weighs approximately 2 g and can sustain axial loads exceeding 1,000 times its own weight (> 2 kg) at 50 kPa. It achieved effective adhesive winding on rods over a practical diameter range, with the best performance observed at diameters of 10-12 mm. When integrated into a 430 g rod-climbing robot, the actuator enabled stable climbing on inclined slender rods without external tethered support. These results demonstrate a lightweight robot-oriented actuator design that addresses the coupled requirements of winding generation, load-bearing attachment, and controllable release for slender rod-climbing applications.

Self-righting enables terrestrial animals to recover from inversion, with strategies shaped by body morphology. While extensively studied in compact-bodied insects, the mechanisms in wingless, elongated stick insects remain unclear. Here, we quantified the self-righting biomechanics of Medauroidea extradentata on smooth horizontal substrates using motion capture. Based on body posture and limb configuration, we identified three self-righting patterns-rolling, semi-pitching, and pitching-with maximum trunk pitch angles of 21.7°, 34.2°, and 58.5°, respectively. Rolling dominated (69%) due to its energetic and temporal efficiency. This strategy relied on coordinated limb-abdomen interaction, with active abdominal bending playing a pivotal role-validated by biomechanical simulations where rigid-abdomen models failed to right. These findings show that stick insects adopt quasi-static, morphology-constrained strategies, in contrast to the momentum-based tactics of compact-bodied species. This work highlights how extreme body shape dictates adaptive self-righting and offers principles for designing bioinspired robots capable of recovering under geometric constraints.

Wall-climbing robots are increasingly required for applications in aerospace, high-altitude operations, and complex environmental monitoring, where they must maintain reliable adhesion and continuous mobility across surfaces with rapidly changing material properties and roughness. Achieving these demands requires lightweight systems with end effectors that integrate multi-surface adaptability and load-carrying capacity. Current single adhesion mechanisms are typically effective only under specific wall conditions, making it challenging to achieve stable, continuous adhesion and detachment on surfaces with significantly different roughness. To address this limitation, we propose a flexible, multi-mechanism coupled end effector driven by a pneumatic-cable hybrid system, integrating two complementary adhesion mechanisms-claw-based interlocking and vacuum suction-into a unified flexible structure. First, we develop the overall structural framework of the end effector and conduct finite element simulations to analyze key structural parameters of the telescopic cavity. We then establish a contact force model between the claw and vertical rough surfaces to clarify the interlocking adhesion mechanism and determine critical geometric parameters. Based on these analyses, a cable-driven adjustment mechanism is introduced to enable dynamic self-adaptation and assist with load-bearing during adhesion, enhancing the stability and load-carrying capacity under varying wall conditions. On rough surfaces, the end effector achieves reliable adhesion through claw interlocking, while on smooth surfaces, it maintains stable attachment through vacuum suction. Furthermore, it supports seamless switching between adhesion modes on different surfaces. When integrated into a wall-climbing robot, the system enables stable adhesion and detachment on both rough and smooth surfaces, providing a feasible solution for the lightweight, integrated design of end effectors for multi-surface adaptive wall-climbing robots.

Under dry friction conditions, friction heat accumulation is a key issue that leads to thermal fatigue, increased wear, and even failure of materials. To address this issue, this study proposes a friction-reducing and lubricating surface based on the synergistic effect of paraffin and surface texture. A ball-on-disk friction tester was utilized to test the textured surface and the composite surface, and the dynamic changes of temperature, friction coefficient, and wear amount of the two surfaces were compared during the friction process. Meanwhile, the effect of texture shape on the friction characteristics of the composite surface was explored, and the morphology of the worn surface was observed by the scanning electron microscope. In addition, a numerical model of the composite surfaces was established based on the fluent software to reveal the influence of texture shape on the lubrication performance. The results found that the phase change of paraffin could absorb the friction heat and lower the temperature at the friction interface by the degree of 11.2%. Meanwhile, the paraffin could provide the lubricating effect, which stabilized friction behavior and reduced friction coefficient and wear mass by the degrees of 69.1-76.8% and 79.5-86.2%, respectively. Among five texture shapes, the circle texture coupled with paraffin presented the lowest friction coefficient of 0.054 and mass loss of 1.6 mg. This study provides a solution for the simultaneous improvement of temperature rise, friction, and wear for the bearing raceway.

Automating the layer-by-layer separation of stacked fabrics remains a major bottleneck in garment manufacturing due to the high deformability of textiles and the difficulty of isolating the top layer without disturbing adjacent layers. To address this challenge, this work proposes a rotational-pinch-inspired layered grasping method and a soft pneumatic gripper capable of reproducing the coordinated pressing-rotating-pinching behavior observed in human fingers. The gripper integrates a cavity-based pneumatic actuation module and a mechanical torsion module that collaboratively regulate the fingertip opening distance, normal force, and rotation angle-three key parameters governing layered fabric separation. A mechanical analysis establishes the relationship between these parameters and the evolution of shear deformation that triggers interlayer detachment. Experiments including parameter-impact, adaptability, and stability tests were conducted using six representative garment fabrics with diverse physical properties. Results demonstrate that the proposed grasping method enables nondestructive, continuous, and stable separation under different stacking layers and grasping positions, achieving success rates exceeding 96.7% on most fabrics. Overall, this work provides reliable technical support for garment manufacturing and is expected to facilitate the transition toward more efficient, precise, and intelligent production.

This article introduces a gecko‐inspired, rolling, inward adhesion/outward release gripper with adhesive contact sensing for grasping convex‐to‐flat surfaces. The gripper consists of pneumatically driven hierarchical adhesive modules (bio‐toe) with the capability of contact sensing, and rolling inward/outward module (rolling module). The bio‐toe manufactured using soft materials can safely and flexibly cater to curved and flat surfaces. The rolling module developed using four‐bar linkage mechanism allows the opposing bio‐toes to roll inward to enhance adhesion (adhesion forces up to 6.3 N on a flat surface and 23 N on an 18 m −1 curved surface) and roll outward to decrease the force in releasing (less than 3 N and especially less than 0.8 N on the flat surface). Embedded resistive strain gauges provide real time signals for the controller to determine the status of the bio‐toe, such as bending, adhesion/release, and even adhesive contact rates, thereby allowing the gripper to autonomously approach, envelop, adhere to, and release objects of various shapes, with the potential for dynamic adhesion control in the future. The adhesive gripper equipped with adhesive contact sensing and biomimetic inward adhesion/outward release capabilities exhibits a broader grasping range and applicability in smart adhesive grabbing across industrial, agricultural, and human–robot interaction contexts.

Animal locomotion in complex environments depends on the ability to adaptively regulate movement in response to substrate mechanics. Tree frogs (Polypedates dennysi), which combine jumping and adhesive capabilities, inhabit arboreal habitats with a wide range of compliant substrates. While previous studies have offered preliminary insights into their locomotion, the biomechanical mechanisms underlying their adaptability remain poorly characterized. In this study, we developed a stiffness-adjustable takeoff substrate supported by four springs, and combined it with a 3D motion capture system to analyze the jumping dynamics and kinematics of frogs across a broader range of compliant substrates. We found that energy recovery from the substrate was influenced by compliance. On the stiffest substrate, up to 50% of the stored energy was recovered during takeoff, whereas highly compliant substrates caused nonlinear damping, energy dissipation, and even takeoff failure. During takeoff, frogs generated peak normal forces up to 6 times their body weight and fore-aft forces up to 4.5 times their body weight. However, force generation showed limited adaptability to substrate mechanics, while takeoff velocity exhibited stronger adaptability to changes in compliance. These findings reveal a trade-off between substrate mechanics and jump performance. This work provides biomechanical insight into substrate preference and informs the design of bioinspired systems capable of efficient locomotion on compliant substrates.

Flexible energy storage plays a crucial role in the field of flexible electronics, because it provides the energy supply, and its technological advancement directly affects the performance and application scope of flexible electronics. As an important flexible energy storage technology member, aqueous zinc (Zn) ion batteries (AZIBs) have garnered considerable attention due to their high safety and low cost. However, the development of flexible AZIBs is hindered by Zn metal anodes (ZMAs), where Zn is prone to growing into dendritic structures, especially in a curved state, and thus leads to battery failure. Herein, we design a robust interfacial layer (RIL) for stabilizing ZMAs in flexible AZIBs, whose introduction constructs uniform Zn ion channels and releases stress accumulation on the anode surface. Various experiments and calculations are employed to verify the effectiveness of RIL in suppressing Zn dendrite at bending states. Furthermore, a Zn|MnO2 flexible pouch battery with RIL is demonstrated with stable cycling performance during bending. We believe this study provides new possibilities for regulating Zn deposition under bending conditions and extends its application to flexible wearable aqueous metal batteries.

Existing climbing robots achieve stable movements on limited surface types. However, adapting a single robot design to various surface shapes remains a substantial challenge. Based on the van der Waals (vdW) force-mediated adhesion mechanism of a gecko foot and negative pressure from octopus suckers, this study introduces a biomimetic integration strategy for designing and fabricating a pneumatically actuated switchable adhesion system (SAS). The SAS includes an adhesive material responsible for generating vdW forces and a suction cup with a membrane structure that enables a vacuum suction force. Owing to nonlinear superposition effects, this SAS exhibited a 56.4% higher adhesion force than the algebraic superposition of the vdW and vacuum suction forces. Moreover, the SAS offers a quick switch between adhesion and detachment through pneumatic modulation, achieving a synergistic balance between adaptability, robustness, and load-bearing efficiency. Equipped with this SAS, we developed a pneumo-electrically actuated quadruped-climbing robot that can climb planes with different tilt angles and surfaces with different curvatures.

Robotic grasping of diverse objects, particularly flat or smooth surfaces, remains challenging for conventional grippers. To address this issue, a bionic interlocking adhesive gripper inspired by the counter-adducting toe mechanism of geckos is proposed. The gripper integrates an angle-spreading joint, an adhesion/detachment joint, and bionic adhesive toes to achieve inward interlocking for enhanced adhesion and outward extension for low-impact detachment. Experimental validation shows that the interlocking behavior effectively doubles the normal adhesion force on planar surfaces compared to non-interlocking conditions. It also enables stable grasping of multiple objects with varied curvature, stiffness, and materials. The results demonstrate that multilevel cooperative design and interlocking biomimetic mechanisms can significantly improve the versatility and controllability of adhesion-based grippers for complex and resource-efficient robotic applications. Beyond performance enhancements, the energy-efficient and reusable nature of gecko-inspired dry adhesion supports broader aims of industry innovation and sustainable industrial technologies.

Robo-pigeons, a novel class of hybrid robotic systems developed using brain-computer interface technology, hold marked promise for search and rescue missions due to their superior load-bearing capacity and sustained flight performance. However, current research remains largely confined to laboratory environments, and precise control of their flight behavior, especially flight altitude regulation, in a large-scale spatial range outdoors continues to pose a challenge. Herein, we focus on overcoming this limitation by using electrical stimulation of the locus coeruleus (LoC) nucleus to regulate outdoor flight altitude. We investigated the effects of varying stimulation parameters, including stimulation frequency (SF), interstimulus interval (ISI), and stimulation cycles (SC), on the flight altitude of robo-pigeons. The findings indicate that SF functions as a pivotal switch controlling the ascending and descending flight modes of the robo-pigeons. Specifically, 60 Hz stimulation effectively induced an average ascending flight of 12.241 m with an 87.72% success rate, while 80 Hz resulted in an average descending flight of 15.655 m with a 90.52% success rate. SF below 40 Hz did not affect flight altitude change, whereas over 100 Hz caused unstable flights. The number of SC was directly correlated with the magnitude of altitude change, enabling quantitative control of flight behavior. Importantly, electrical stimulation of the LoC nucleus had no significant effects on flight direction. This study is the first to establish that targeted variation of electrical stimulation parameters within the LoC nucleus can achieve precise altitude control in robo-pigeons, providing new insights for advancing the control of flight animal-robot systems in real-world applications.

The remarkable climbing ability of geckos is largely attributed to the adhesive capabilities of their feet, which rely on precise control of foot motion. Mimicking the attachment–detachment trajectories observed in geckos can significantly enhance the stability and efficiency of bioinspired climbing robots. However, existing gecko-inspired robots still struggle to achieve stable wall-climbing performance comparable to that of their biological counterparts. To address this issue, this study established a multi-camera motion capture system combined with a video-based reconstruction algorithm to accurately extract the three-dimensional foot trajectories of Gekko gecko during vertical climbing. Based on the captured biological trajectories, a biomimetic foot trajectory model was proposed and optimized for robotic implementation. Simulations and physical robot experiments were conducted to verify the feasibility and climbing stability of the proposed trajectory. The results demonstrate that the gecko-inspired robot achieved stable and repeatable vertical climbing, successfully realizing a closed-loop validation from biological observation to robotic implementation. This research provides a quantitative framework linking biological motion analysis with robotic gait control, offering valuable insights for optimizing adhesion–detachment strategies in bioinspired climbing robots.

Space‐wall‐climbing robots face the challenge of stably attaching to and moving on spacecraft surfaces, which include smooth flat areas and rough intricate surfaces. Although adhesion‐based wall‐climbing robots demonstrate stable climbing on smooth surfaces in outer space, there is scarce research on their stable adhesion on rough surfaces within a microgravity environment. A novel adhesive material is developed inspired by the adhesion mechanism and locomotion of the Gekko gecko. This material exhibits exceptional adhesion across various materials and surface roughness. A variable‐stiffness gecko‐inspired paw is engineered, generating substantial adhesion forces while minimizing detachment forces. Impressively, this paw generates up to 180 N of adhesion force on smooth surfaces and achieves detachment without external forces. By integrating such variable‐stiffness paws with a wall‐climbing robot, a gecko‐inspired robot effectively operating in a microgravity environment is created. The robotic satellite surface climbing experiments and robotic satellite capture experiments are conducted using a simulated microgravity environment and a satellite model. The results unequivocally demonstrate the gecko‐inspired robot's proficiency in executing various functions, including stable motion and capture on both smooth and rough spacecraft surfaces within a microgravity environment. These experiments underscore the potential of adhesion‐based gecko‐inspired robots for in‐orbit services and spacecraft capture and recovery.

Small vertebrates, such as geckos, often use their tails to regulate their posture after take-off and suppress abnormal rotations in mid-air (such as sliding and falling). However, research on tail function before take-off remains scarce, particularly when animals overcome gravity to jump upward. This study examined tailed and tailless geckos’ ability to jump over obstacles. The tails swung up and reached their upper limits during take-off, corresponding to a continuous increase in their trunk elevation angle. Compared to tailless geckos, geckos with intact tails had lower body and tail angular velocities. In addition, tailed geckos achieved larger take-off angles and higher jumps; moreover, their take-off angles were consistent with their velocity angles. Theoretical analyses demonstrated that the tail and its upward swing before take-off could benefit lifting the forelimb and hindlimbs off the ground, expanding the stability area of their centre of mass (COM). A robot prototype verified the effect of the tail and its swing on trunk elevation before take-off. Other parameters, such as the posture of the hindlimbs (support length and angle) and initial angle of the trunk, affect posture regulation. This study significantly extends our knowledge in animal locomotion and provides indispensable information for improving robot jumping ability.

As an arboreal animal, tree frogs face diverse challenges when landing on perches, including variations in substrate shape, diameter, flexibility, and angular distribution, with potentially significant consequences for failed landings. Research on tree frog landing behavior on perches, especially concerning landing on vertical substrates, remains limited. This study investigated the landing strategies (forelimb, abdomen, and hindlimb) of tree frogs on vertical perches, considering perch diameter. Although all three strategies were observed across perches of different diameters, their frequencies differed. Forelimb landing was most common across all perch diameters, with its frequency increasing with perch diameter, while abdomen and hindlimb landing strategies were more prevalent on smaller diameter perches. During the process from take-off to landing, the body axis underwent some deviation owing to the asymmetric movement of the left and right limbs; however, these deviations did not significantly differ among landing strategies. Additionally, different landing strategies led to variations in the landing forces, with abdominal landings generating significantly higher impact forces than the other two strategies. These findings provide insights into the biomechanics and biological adaptations of tree frogs when landing on challenging substrates, such as leaves or branches.