Tungsten carbide, owing to its high hardness, compressive strength and wear resistance, is widely used in precision molds and wear-resistant components; however, these properties also make its machining highly challenging. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD), as a superhard tool material, possesses excellent mechanical properties and shows great potential for machining such difficult-to-cut materials. Among the factors influencing the performance of PCD tools, diamond grain size is particularly critical, yet its effect on tool wear mechanisms in tungsten carbide machining has been insufficiently studied. In this study, milling experiments on tungsten carbide were carried out using PCD tools of three grain sizes to examine their effect on tool wear. The results indicated that the wear rate decreased as the diamond grain size increased. Tool wear was mainly characterized by large-scale spalling on the rake face, as well as adhesive and abrasive wear on the flank face. It was further inferred that the large-area spalling of the rake face was associated with the cobalt-catalyzed phase transformation of diamond grains at elevated temperatures and the scraping of the chips. In addition, abrasive wear was strongly dependent on the diamond grain size: tools with finer grains were dominated by intergranular fracture, whereas those with coarser grains tended to transgranular fracture. This behavior was primarily attributed to the direct mechanical impacts between the diamond grains of the tool and the WC grains of the workpiece during machining.

WC-Co tungsten carbide is widely used in precision molds and wear-resistant components owing to its high hardness and wear resistance; however, its inherent brittleness poses significant challenges for the efficient precision machining of complex geometries. In ball-end milling of WC-Co, the continuously varying toolworkpiece contact conditions give rise to pronounced three-dimensional dynamic cutting characteristics, causing ductile deformation and brittle fracture to occur alternately within a single process. To overcome the low efficiency of conventional ductile-regime machining, a cross-mode milling strategy is proposed, in which a ductile-quality surface is achieved through the coordinated action of ductile and controlled brittle removal via appropriate parameter selection. Milling experiments were conducted on WC-15Co using polycrystalline diamond (PCD) ball-end mills to investigate the evolution of cutting forces and surface generation under varying feed per tooth and axial depth of cut. The critical parameter range for cross-mode milling and its influence on surface quality were systematically evaluated. The results show that the cutting forces increase with feed per tooth, and that in subsequent passes, the reduced chip thickness shifts the removal mode toward a combination of ploughing and micro-cutting. The critical feed per tooth for cross-mode milling was identified to be approximately 15.5 mu m. Even when operating below this threshold, an excessive axial depth of cut can still induce WC grain fracture, leading to grain pull-out and micro-fractured surfaces. Consequently, the surface roughness first decreases and then increases with axial depth of cut. These findings provide practical guidance for the high-efficiency, high-quality cross-mode milling of WC-Co components.

The GH4169 nickel-based superalloy, renowned for its exceptional mechanical properties, presents significant challenges in machining due to its inherent hardness and thermal resistance. This study investigates the application of a hybrid nano-lubricant coolant mixture, combining multiwalled carbon nanotube nanofluid-assisted minimum quantity lubrication (MWCNT-MQL) with cryogenic liquid nitrogen (LN2), and sprays it through a single nozzle to improve the machinability of GH4169. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of the multiphase, mixed-lubricated coolant spray under turbulent flow conditions was performed using the discrete phase model (DPM) in ANSYS Fluent software. Additionally, to enable precise mixing of the dual-phase coolant, a custom-designed mixing chamber was fabricated. Droplet size distribution was conducted using spray footprint analysis, and end-milling experiments evaluated cutting force, surface hardness, roughness, and tool wear under varying spray pressures (2-6 bar) and flow rates (40-60ml/h). The results revealed that the spray with the mean average droplet size (16.76 mu m at 4 bar and 50ml/h) yielded the most favorable outcomes. This resulted in a cooler workpiece surface, leading to increased surface hardness and cutting force. Additionally, a significant reduction in surface roughness and tool wear was observed. Compared to dry machining, hybrid lubri-cooling enhanced machinability and extended tool life by up to 43.16%, as confirmed by milling experiments and wear analysis.

Tool-axis orientation is a critical factor affecting cutting mechanics and surface integrity in ball-end milling of tungsten carbide. However, its influence on material removal behavior and subsurface microstructural evolution remains unclear. Therefore, dry ball-end milling experiments were conducted on WC-15Co tungsten carbide using a PCD cutter under different lead and tilt angle conditions. The results show that the lead angle and tilt angle influence machined surface-layer formation through different mechanisms. As the lead angle increases, the effective cutting region gradually shifts away from the tool tip, increasing the minimum local cutting velocity and promoting the transition from ploughing-dominated deformation to stable shearing. Consequently, Fx and Fy decrease, and machining-induced plastic deformation is suppressed within an appropriate lead angle range. In contrast, the tilt angle primarily changes the direction of the cutting velocity and the tool-workpiece contact condition. An increase in the tilt angle causes the local cutting velocity in the finally generated surface region to deviate toward the workpiece normal direction, thereby strengthening the normal contact interaction between the cutting edge and the workpiece. Consequently, the Fx and Fz force components increase significantly, producing a stronger three-dimensional compressive stress state within the machined surface layer. Under large tilt angle conditions, the intensified normal compressive effect promotes local orientation fragmentation, grain breakage, and crack initiation, thereby aggravating subsurface damage.

Tungsten carbide (WC) exhibits high hot hardness and excellent abrasion resistance, making it widely employed in mold manufacturing, aerospace, and precision component production. However, its extreme hardness leads to severe tool wear during cutting, which limits both machining efficiency and surface quality. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of cutting tool wear and their evolution during tungsten carbide turning is critical for improving machining accuracy and tool life. In this study, dry orthogonal turning experiments were conducted on WC-15Co using a polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool to investigate the effects of machining parameters and material removal volume on tool wear from a thermo-mechanical coupling perspective. The results revealed that cutting temperature was more sensitive to cutting speed than to feed. Cutting forces were influenced by both material thermal softening and tool wear, resulting in a decreasing trend in the tangential force with increasing cutting speed, while the feed force initially decreased and subsequently increased. At low material removal volumes, the pronounced thermal softening combined with minimal initial tool wear yielded optimal surface quality at a cutting speed of 250 m/min. However, in terms of tool life, a cutting speed of 100 m/min provided a better thermo-mechanical balance, resulting in minimal wear and stable surface quality. Under high-speed cutting conditions (>= 350 m/min), chips transformed from discontinuous to continuous due to thermal softening and the extrusion effect induced by tool wear, which adversely affected surface quality. The wear behavior of PCD tools was strongly dependent on cutting speed: at lower speeds, adhesion and abrasive wear were dominant, whereas at higher speeds, rapid tool failure occurred due to diamond graphitization, severe oxidation, and spalling of large adhered layers. This study elucidates the mechanisms by which thermo-mechanical interactions influence tool wear under varying machining parameters, providing theoretical insights and guidance for parameter optimization to achieve efficient and stable turning of tungsten carbide, with significant engineering implications.

Milling represents a pivotal manufacturing process in modern industry, where machining accuracy and efficiency critically determine product performance and productivity, respectively. Regenerative chatter during milling operations substantially deteriorates both machining productivity and workpiece surface integrity. While existing research on milling stability analysis predominantly emphasizes the influence of flank edge cutting forces on overall process stability, the impact of bottom edge cutting forces (BECF) has received limited attention. To address this issue, this study developed an enhanced milling dynamics model considering BECF effects for improved stability prediction. A refined semi-discretization method was subsequently introduced to solve the governing dynamics equations. The efficacy of the proposed algorithm was verified through comprehensive numerical simulations. Experimental validation was conducted using mold steel 2343ESR in milling operations, with results demonstrating excellent agreement between empirical data and theoretical predictions. The investigation revealed that accounting for BECF increases the stable limit of depth of cut by 10–150

Aluminium nitride high-temperature co-fired ceramic (AlN HTCC) is a promising substrate material for electronic packaging, and the fabrication of microchannel arrays on its backside can significantly enhance its heat dissipation performance. However, the high hardness and brittleness of AlN present considerable challenges in the machining of microstructures. Therefore, this study proposes a hydrochloric film-assisted laser processing (HFALP) technique. Initially, a systematic analysis was conducted on the multi-factor energy attenuation mechanism of laser beams. Based on this, a temperature distribution model capable of accurately predicting the line-etching morphology was developed. Furthermore, through transient observations, flow field simulations, and comparative experiments under different liquid phases, this study reveals, for the first time, the intrinsic relationship between the cavitation bubble dynamic behaviour, laser, and liquid layer. This leads to the clarification of two material removal mechanisms, tunnel channel ablation and cavitation ablation, induced by multi-mechanism synergy within the ternary system of “laser-reactive medium-thermally-active material”. Finally, narrow microgrooves with an aspect ratio of 8.6:1 were successfully fabricated on AlN by coupling the two ablation mechanisms. Compared with laser chemical milling, HFALP improved the machining depth, mean deviation of the contour, and processing efficiency by 41.24%, 30.11%, and 3845.2%, respectively, and achieved stable fabrication of microchannel array structures with a profile deviation of only 0.1%. This study not only provides a reliable process for the thermal management application of AlN but also, through successful validation on other reactive materials, establishes a universal theoretical framework for “reactive medium-assisted laser processing”. This offers reusable technical pathways and mechanistic support for efficient and high-quality machining of various thermally-active materials.

Aerostatic spindles are extensively employed in ultra-precision machining owing to their superior rotational accuracy, negligible wear, and low thermal distortion. However, during practical machining operations, the combined gravitational effects of the workpiece and fixture inevitably induce journal misalignment, which alters the air film pressure distribution and degrades spindle rotational accuracy, particularly under variable external load conditions. In this study, a comprehensive dynamic model of an aerostatic spindle is developed by incorporating journal misalignment, nonlinear air film forces, rotor unbalance, and alternating sinusoidal loads. The transient compressible Reynolds equation is coupled with the rotor dynamic equations, and the time-varying spindle axis trajectory is numerically solved using an iterative Euler scheme. The influences of journal misalignment angle, rotational speed, rotor mass eccentricity, and alternating load amplitude and frequency on spindle rotational accuracy are systematically investigated through time-domain trajectory analysis and statistical indicators. The results demonstrate that journal misalignment leads to a pronounced axial non-uniformity in air film pressure and a reduction in throttle orifice outlet pressure, thereby significantly increasing spindle vibration amplitudes. Under misalignment conditions, increases in rotational speed and rotor mass eccentricity further amplify vibration responses and deteriorate rotational accuracy. When subjected to alternating sinusoidal loads, the spindle exhibits enhanced vibration amplitudes and trajectory distortion, while non-synchronous excitation frequencies induce irregular axis trajectories and reduced dynamic stability. The proposed model provides a quantitative and efficient approach for predicting spindle rotational accuracy under realistic machining conditions, offering valuable guidance for the design, load evaluation, and performance optimization of ultra-precision aerostatic spindle systems.

The machining processes must achieve sustainability due to growing ecological concerns and energy crises. As an effective tool, sustainability assessment guides the implementation of sustainable strategies in machining processes. However, the complex resource consumption across machining processes and the coupling effects among machining parameters have greatly hindered its implementation. To address this challenge, this study proposes a sustainability assessment method based on progressive analysis of critical sources, enabling the identification and evaluation of key factors influencing sustainability. First, critical sources are identified through quantification of contribution degrees and sensitivity analysis. Progressive analysis is employed to focus resources on in-depth research into the fundamental characteristics and operational mechanisms of critical sources, establishing specialized indicators such as specific embodied energy and specific carbon emissions for cutters. Subsequently, a sustainable soft sensor is developed to enable efficient and cost-effective sustainability assessment. Finally, a milling case study incorporating various tool types and cooling-lubrication strategies demonstrates the method’s effectiveness in comprehensively capturing the coupling effects inherent in machining processes. The results confirm the method’s reliability and clearly validate its capability to evaluate sustainability performance in machining. This study not only provides technical support for sustainability assessments but also delivers actionable insights to facilitate the implementation of sustainable machining strategies.

In the manufacturing of bearing rings, diamond cutting tools are generally used in precision hard turning to achieve high dimensional accuracy, tight tolerances, and high surface quality. However, in the hard-turning of bearing rings (AISI52100), high heat generation enables the “iron-carbon mutual dissolution,” leading to an intense chemical reaction that significantly impacts the diamond tool under high temperatures, leading to severe tool wear and poor surface finish. Cryogenics cooling and tool design parameters have been reported as effective in achieving low cutting temperatures and extended tool life. This research study is dedicated to fabricating micro-textures using the laser surface texturing (LST) technique on the rake face of PCD tools and evaluating their performance in precision hard turning of bearing rings under the effect of cryogenic CO2. The preliminary research evaluates the effect of laser parameters (power, scanning speed, frequency) on the dimension and surface morphology of three different types of micro-textures (parallel, perpendicular, and angular from the main cutting edge) on the rake face of PCD cutting inserts. Furthermore, the performance of these textured PCD tools was evaluated in precision hard turning under the effect of low-temperature CO2 in terms of surface roughness, residual stresses induced in bearing rings, and tool wear. The comparative results confirmed the effectiveness of micro-textured tools by improving surface quality, compressive surface residual stresses, and less tool wear than non-textured PCD tools, providing practical implications for the precision machining industry. More specifically, the parallel micro-textures have shown a 38.75–52

In recent years, the digitalization and intelligence of the information fusion in manufacturing process have gradually become a research hotspot for smart manufacturing. The material reduction involved cutting technology triggered the impact on the consumption of production resources and the environment. In terms of difficult-to-machine titanium alloy parts, the tool condition not only affects the energy consumption of machining center, but also closely influences the milling quality and efficiency. Currently, the design and production optimization of tool ontology approximates to a bottleneck. Therefore, the intelligent fusion of cutting information and accurate prediction of the tool wear condition have been one of the key ways to further achieve sustainable manufacturing. Aiming at the problems of complex modelling of the traditional tool wear mechanism, strong reliance on basic experiments, high data cost and poor model interpretability, this work innovatively proposes an interpretable foreknowledge framework for multimodal sensing fusion. Furthermore, a physical-knowledge inspired time-varying tool wear prediction model is established based on few shot samples with unbalanced data distribution from realistic scenery. Based on the monitoring cutting force, vibration and acoustic emission signals, the feature extraction of multimodal signal is realized. Then, using the tool wear distribution and its gradient as classification criteria, an unsupervised learning algorithm is adopted to achieve multi-cluster centralization of tool wear. In addition, an interpretable strategy based on Shapley's superposition is applied to capture and characterize the key feature information of various tool wear stages, to improve the interpretability and transparency of foreknowledge model. Compared with the benchmark models of other four advanced algorithms, the predictive performance of the proposed model proposed is improved by 77.70%, 70.76%, and 80.38% in MAE, RMSE, and MAPE index. Furthermore, the key impact monitoring features of three tool wear stages are identified from the macro and micro perspective, as well as the quantitative characterization of the evolution from feature driving function on tool wear prediction model. Therefore, the proposed interpretable foreknowledge model in this work provides a potential method for information fusion in the sustainable manufacturing.

In this research, we have successfully developed a low-pulse energy laser shock peening (LSP) technology and applied it to WC-8Co cemented carbide tools, aiming to significantly enhance their mechanical performance. Through a systematic investigation, we explored the effects of laser power and the number of scanning passes on the mechanical properties and microstructure of the tools, as well as the underlying strengthening and toughening mechanisms of LSP. Our findings reveal that when the laser power was optimized at 0.4 mj and the tool was subjected to 2 scanning passes during LSP treatment, there was a remarkable improvement in the tool's flexural strength and hardness, increasing by 27.9 % and 39.8 %, respectively. This study underscores the potential of LSP as an effective method for improving the performance of cemented carbide tools. The relative density reached 98.1 %, grain size reduced to 1.06 mu m, and residual compressive stress reached -1871MPa. Additionally, under the induction of low-pulse energy, a multi-level construction of material microstructures is achieved, resulting in a unique non-uniform grain structure along the depth direction with a gradient distribution. This effectively inhibits the initiation and propagation of cracks, thus significantly enhancing the mechanical properties of the tool. These findings, applicable to cemented carbide tool materials, open up new avenues for the development of novel high-performance tools for high-speed machining.

High-volume fraction silicon particle-reinforced aluminium matrix composites (Si/Al) are increasingly applied in aerospace, radar communications, and large-scale integrated circuits because of their superior thermal conductivity, wear resistance, and low thermal expansion coefficient. However, the abrasive and adhesive wear caused by the hard silicon reinforcement and the ductile aluminium matrix leads to significant tool wear, decreased machining efficiency, and compromised surface quality. This study combines theoretical analysis and cutting experiments to investigate polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool wear during milling of 70 vol% Si/Al composite. A key contribution of this work is the development of a tool wear model that incorporates reinforcement particle characteristics, treating them as ellipsoidal structures, which enhances the accuracy of predicting abrasive and adhesive wear mechanisms. The model is based on abrasive and adhesive wear mechanisms, and can analyze the interaction between silicon particles, aluminium matrix, and tool components, thus providing deeper insights into PCD tool wear processes. Experimental validation of the model shows a good agreement with the results, with a mean deviation of approximately 10%. The findings on the tool wear mechanism reveal that, as tool wear progresses, the proportion of abrasive wear increases from 40% in the running-in stage to 75% in the rapid wear stage, while adhesive wear decreases. The optimal machining parameters of 120 m·min ^–1 cutting speed ( v _c ) and 0.04 mm·z ^–1 feed rate ( f _z ), result in tool life of 33 min and surface roughness ( S _a ) of 2.2 μm. The study uncovers the variation patterns of abrasive and adhesive wear during the tool wear process, and the proposed model offers a robust framework for predicting tool wear during the machining of high-volume fraction Si/Al composites. The research findings also offer key insights for optimizing tool selection and machining parameters, advancing both the theoretical understanding and practical application of PCD tool wear.

Diamond encounter significant difficulties in contact with ferrous metals due to severe mechanochemical wear, restricting their practical utility. Ultrasonic vibrations, cryogenics, and inert gas shielding reduce wear, but their high costs and extensive modification requirements limit industrial use. This work proposes a surface modification technique for transforming a diamond surface with a few layers of graphene (DfG) covalently bonded together on the surface to enhance its endurance. In this process, a nanosecond laser was employed, instantly transformed diamond sp3 into sp2 graphite. The sp2 graphite was then exfoliated using electrochemical exfoliation to achieve graphene layer. The optimal surface was achieved under parameters of 10 V, C 1.0 M of (NH4)2SO4, and T of 30 min at pH 9 of the electrolyte. The modified surface (DfG) exhibited outstanding lubrication properties and strong resistance to mechanical wear. Under normal loads ranging from 1 to 8 N and enduring 15,000 cycles against a GCr15, DfG significantly suppressed COF (44-63 %), noise friction (15.6317.65 %), and relative wear (78.4-81 %) while maintaining its structural stability throughout the testing phase. This research aims to improve the durability of diamond surfaces and can enable uniform application on both flat and non-planar surfaces, expanding its industrial utilities.

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is the specialty plastic that is widely used in space satellites. Due to the poor surface quality of 3D-printed PEEK, the silver lines printed on the surface will diffuse after curing. To address these issues, this paper proposed a liquid nitrogen cooling assisted micro-milling PEEK material, and analyzed the influence of three different temperatures (high temperature 140 ℃, normal temperature 25 ℃, low temperature -196 ℃) on the hardness of PEEK, and optimized the milling parameters (feed per tooth) through single factor experiments to reduce the surface roughness, and finally achieved the purpose of reducing the diffusion degree of silver lines. The result demonstrated liquid nitrogen could reduce the intermolecular force, increase the hardness and reduce surface roughness. When the feed per tooth was 1.5 μm/z, the surface roughness was reduced to minimum (0.2234 μm) at low temperature, and the diffusion degree of silver lines were greatly reduced.

Machining requirements for difficult-to-machine materials, such as titanium alloys are becoming increasingly demanding in the aerospace engineering industry. However, in ultra-precision high-speed machining of titanium alloys, the tool-chip contact interface experiences high temperature and pressure conditions, leading to significant tool wear and suboptimal surface finish. Therefore, effective lubrication and cooling are imperative for titanium alloy machining operations. Inspired by the spontaneous water transport of the hierarchical structure of Sarracenia trichome, we proposed the biomimetic wedge hierarchical micro-groove (WHG) textured tool. The WHG tools could facilitate the spontaneous transport of the cutting fluid to the tool-chip contact area, thereby improving the lubrication and cooling states during the titanium alloy cutting process. The experimental results indicated that the WHG effectively reduced tool wear and improved cutting performance. Compared with the non-textured tools, the average reduction in the main cutting force was 15.9 %, and the average reduction in the friction coefficient was 24 %. Additionally, the average reduction in cutting temperature reached 48 %. Therefore, we envision that our WHG tool will play an important role in the ultra-precision cutting of titanium alloy components.

Diamond coatings possess numerous excellent properties, making them desirable materials for high-performance surface applications. However, without a revolutionary surface modification method, the surface roughness and friction behavior of diamond coatings can impede their ability to meet the demanding requirements of advanced engineering surfaces. This study proposed the thermal stress control at coating interfaces and demonstrated a novel process of precise graphenization on conventional diamond coatings surface through laser induction and mechanical cleavage, without causing damage to the metal substrate. Through experiments and simulations, the influence mechanism of surface graphitization and interfacial thermal stress was elucidated, ultimately enabling rapid conversion of the diamond coating surface to graphene while controlling the coating’s thickness and roughness. Compared to the original diamond coatings, the obtained surfaces exhibited a 63%–72% reduction in friction coefficients, all of which were below 0.1, with a minimum of 0.06, and a 59%–67% decrease in specific wear rates. Moreover, adhesive wear in the friction counterpart was significantly inhibited, resulting in a reduction in wear by 49%–83%. This demonstrated a significant improvement in lubrication and inhibition of mechanochemical wear properties. This study provides an effective and cost-efficient avenue to overcome the application bottleneck of engineered diamond surfaces, with the potential to significantly enhance the performance and expand the application range of diamond-coated components.

Nickel-based superalloys are classified as difficult-to-cut materials due to their high strength, toughness, cold work hardening, and low thermal conductivity, leading to chip adhesion, accelerated tool wear, and high cutting forces. In the meantime, high cutting forces and built-up edges increase the power consumption and corresponding carbon emission. Establishing a sustainable production process that maintains a balance between economic feasibility and ecological preservation is among the existing challenges of manufacturing sectors. Dry machining operations are good in terms of environment, but not perfectly alternatives to sustainable manufacturing. Clean and sustainable manufacturing requires a balance between quality, productivity, and machine tool energy demand. The current study compares the machinability and sustainability perspectives of drilling Incoloy 825 by employing cryogenic liquid carbon dioxide (LCO2) and minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) under internal and external lubri-cooling technologies. The drilling performance measures are based on responses and parameters such as thrust force, surface roughness, power consumption, tool wear, and life cycle assessment (LCA) at six levels of cutting speed. The experimental findings underscored that internal cryogenic LCO2 was not feasible as most of the cutting tools prematurely ruptured inside the holes as a result of the cutting lips’ overcooling. The hybrid Cryo-MQL (CO2 continuous external, internal MQL) allowed to drill maximum number of holes because of superior cooling lubrication constrained premature tool failure. Therefore, compared to dry cutting, Cryo-MQL reduced surface roughness by 3.24

Cutting-edge developments in metal additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have redefined engineering boundaries by enabling the production of intricate components at unprecedented levels of customization. Despite these developments, metal AM products typically contain numerous microstructural and surface defects—underscoring the necessity for rigorous post-processing to achieve functional performance and product life cycle. Various post-processing techniques such as (i) heat treatment, (ii) surface finishing, (iii) machining, (iv) support removal, and (v) laser processing have been adapted previously. In this review, the authors provide comprehensive insights into post-processing techniques applied to suppress micro-defects in metal AM-printed parts. Heat treatment is often identified as a primary post-processing technique for removing residual stresses, enhancing structural integrity, and modifying microstructure. Surface finishing via grinding reduces roughness but is sensitive to material properties and process parameters such as wheel speed, feed rate, and cutting depth. Furthermore, polishing decreases the surface roughness even more than grinding. Such as surface finishing and post-processing using geometrically defined machining, ensures high precision and high feed rates, leading to substantial cost reduction. Laser processing has been identified as an emerging post-processing technology used for both surface polishing and surface hardening, often achieving a reduction in roughness. Notably, laser processing techniques possess relatively high adaptability to complex geometries and offer high repeatability and cost-effectiveness. Hybrid Additive-Subtractive Manufacturing (AM-SM) Technologies have been introduced along with their benefits. Finally, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) on the Integration of AM with post-processing techniques is also explored to understand the economic and environmental impacts of manufacturing. Different life cycle analyses show that energy consumption in AM manufacturing can be reduced up to 50