Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a major horticultural crop and an important model for studying fruit development and stress adaptation. Climate-induced stresses, including drought, salinity, heat, and oxidative damage, pose significant challenges to tomato productivity, emphasizing the need to understand molecular mechanisms that integrate stress responses with developmental processes. Bcl-2-associated athanogene (BAG) proteins, highly conserved co-chaperones, have emerged as key regulators at the intersection of proteostasis, signaling, and programmed cell death. However, despite their emerging importance, comprehensive studies reviewing BAG co-chaperones in tomato are still limited. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on BAG proteins in tomato, focusing on their structural features, evolutionary divergence from animal BAGs, and functional roles in development and stress tolerance. We examined how SlBAGs interact with Hsp70 chaperones, MAPK signaling cascades, calcium/calmodulin pathways, and the ubiquitin-proteasome system to coordinate cellular responses under diverse abiotic stresses. Special attention is given to their involvement in reactive oxygen species regulation, programmed cell death, senescence, and fruit ripening. Furthermore, we highlighted the gaps in functional characterization, post-translational regulation, and field-level validation of SlBAGs. Finally, we discussed the emerging strategies, including multi-omics approaches, genome editing, and translational breeding, to harness the genetic potential of SlBAGs for developing climate-resilient, high-yielding, and quality-enhanced tomato cultivars.

Global food security and industrial sustainability increasingly depend on resilient and high-yielding oilseed crops; however, climate-induced stresses, such as drought, salinity, heat, and flooding, substantially constrain their productivity. Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative and eco-friendly approach to enhance crop resilience, yet integrative syntheses focused specifically on oilseed crops under climate stress remain insufficient. While earlier reviews have addressed general agricultural applications of nanotechnology, comparatively little attention has been devoted to oilseed-specific physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses. This review consolidates recent advances on nanoparticles, including zinc oxide (ZnO), silicon dioxide (SiO2), silver (Ag), iron (Fe), and polymer-based nanomaterials, in improving nutrient uptake, photosynthetic efficiency, redox regulation, and stress tolerance in major oilseed crops such as soybean, mustard, sunflower, groundnut, canola, and sesame. Emerging nanoenabled applications in CRISPR/Cas9 and RNAi delivery, biosensing, and precision input management are also highlighted. Environmental safety, nanotoxicity, and regulatory challenges are critically discussed, emphasizing sustainable synthesis and standardized risk assessment to advance climate-resilient and sustainable oilseed production.

BAG (Bcl-2-associated athanogene) genes encode evolutionarily conserved co-chaperones that participate in proteostasis regulation, stress responses, and programmed cell death. However, their collective functions during plant development remain poorly understood. Promoter cis-element analysis revealed multiple hormone-responsive elements in promoters of Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) BAG genes, suggesting potential involvement of BAG genes in phytohormone-mediated developmental regulation. To investigate this, we generated a bag-septuple (bag-s) mutant in which all seven Arabidopsis BAG genes were knocked out using a combination of T-DNA insertion alleles and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis. Phenotypic characterization revealed pleiotropic defects, including delayed seed germination, increased seed coat mucilage accumulation, reduced primary root elongation, decreased rosette diameter and plant height, and delayed leaf senescence. Consistent with the delayed leaf senescence phenotype, expression of senescence-associated genes and senescence-promoting transcription factors was downregulated in the bag-s mutant. RT-qPCR analyses further showed that genes involved in auxin biosynthesis and auxin signaling were downregulated in the bag-s mutant. Furthermore, exogenous IAA partially rescued the root elongation defect of the bag-s mutant, supporting a functional association between BAG genes and auxin-dependent root growth. Collectively, these findings indicate that BAG genes redundantly regulate seed germination, vegetative growth, auxin-related root development, and leaf senescence, providing a genetic framework for further dissecting BAG-mediated coordination of proteostasis, hormone signaling, and plant development.

Excessive synthetic fertilizer application drives agroecosystem degradation. Fruit tree-legume intercropping, like the crabapple-soybean system, is a sustainable intensification strategy, but its micro-scale biogeochemical responses to reduced nitrogen (N) remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate how targeted N reduction alters soil N distribution and microbial mechanisms by assessing N-cycling enzymes and community diversity. A two-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate four treatments: monoculture crabapple (MX), monoculture soybean (MS), conventional crabapple-soybean intercropping (IS), and intercropping with 25% N reduction (ISN). Soil properties were analyzed across key soybean growth stages. Results showed that ISN significantly strengthened the near-tree “fertility island” effect and drove a shift toward nitrate dominance. It drove a shift toward nitrate dominance; compared to MS, ISN increased nitrate nitrogen by 61.06%, 67.05%, and 84.41% at V4, R3, and R6 stages, respectively. Furthermore, ISN alleviated enzyme substrate inhibition: soil urease activity under ISN was 63–67% higher than under IS, while nitrate reductase in IS was suppressed to merely 14.3–15.5% of ISN levels. Microbiologically, ISN enriched fungal alpha diversity and key functional taxa, including Ascomycota (reaching 85.77%). Strategically reducing N input actively modulates the soil microbiome and enzyme system, shifting the N pathway to an efficient nitrate-dominant state. This synergy optimizes nitrogen utilization, offering a robust paradigm for sustainable agroforestry management.

Context: Intercropping legumes with fruit trees in arid regions offer potential for sustainable intensification, yet interspecific competition often compromises crop yields. Balancing resource partitioning and productivity remains a critical challenge. Objective: This study compared the agronomic performance of apple/soybean intercropping (IAS) and apple/ alfalfa intercropping (IAA) intercropping systems in China's arid zone, focusing on yield trade-offs, root niche segregation, and soil nitrogen dynamics. Methods: Root distribution patterns, soil inorganic nitrogen content, dry matter allocation, and land equivalent ratio (LER) were quantified across monoculture and intercropped systems using root-drill sampling and spatial regression models. Results and conclusion: Intercropping reduced soybean and alfalfa yields by 42-54 % and apple yields by 29.54 %37.99 % compared to monocultures. However, the IAS system achieved higher land-use efficiency (LER: 1.22-1.28) than IAA (1.15-1.19), driven by soybean's adaptive root plasticity under shade. Vertical root stratification (apple roots in the 20-40 cm soil depth vs. crops in the 0-20 cm soil depth) minimized competition, while intercropping increased soil ammonium-N by 55.47-60.09 % and reduced nitrate-N leaching by 22.3-27.5 %. Soybean allocated more biomass to stems under shading, whereas alfalfa prioritized root growth after mowing. Despite yield penalties, the IAS system demonstrated superior systemic productivity through niche complementarity and nitrogen cycling optimization. Significance: These results highlight the importance of species selection and root management in designing sustainable agroforestry systems for arid regions.

Context: Nitrogen-efficient fertilization on marginal sandy lands is crucial for enhancing agricultural productivity in degraded soils while promoting global food and oil security. However, the relationships between nitrogen (N) regimes, root-soil interactions, and tuber quality remain poorly understood. Objective: This study aims to elucidate how N fertilization modulates root adaptive strategies, soil nutrient availability, and extracellular enzyme activity, thereby influencing tuber yield and quality in tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus L.) grown on sandy farmland. Methods: The experiment was conducted in sandy farmland with five nitrogen (N) application treatments: no nitrogen (N0), 100 (N100), 200 (N200), 300 (N300) and 400 (N400) kg N ha(-1). We systematically investigated: root functional traits, soil properties (total nitrogen, inorganic nitrogen, and organic matter), extracellular enzyme (beta-glucosidase (beta G), beta-D-cellobiosidase (CBH), beta-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAG), beta-1,4-xylosidase (XYL), L-leucine aminopeptidase (LAP)) and tuber parameters (yield, crude fat, protein and starch). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed to analyze the relationships between soil properties and plant performance. Results: Our results revealed divergent root adaptation strategies across nitrogen (N) gradients. Under N0, tiger nut plants prioritized resource allocation toward thinner, elongated roots, significantly increasing specific root length (24.24 % - 372.63 %) and area (35.73 % - 385.22 %). Conversely, nitrogen-sufficient regimes (N300-N400) promoted denser root architectures, with root area and length densities increasing by 18.27 % - 57.42 %. This morphological shift coincided with significant soil enrichment; N300-N400 levels elevated soil inorganic nitrogen, total nitrogen, and organic matter, while stimulating beta G and NAG activities. However, soil pH and CBH declined, and XYL activity peaked specifically at N300. Consequently, tuber yield reached a maximum at N300 before plateauing at N400. High nitrogen levels further improved quality by boosting crude protein (35.41 % - 42.47 %) and oil content (10.37 %-11.56 %), despite a concurrent reduction in starch content. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the synergy between root morphological plasticity and soil biochemical health in boosting tiger nut productivity. Strategic nitrogen management stimulates adaptive root architecture and enhances soil enzymatic activity and nutrient availability in nutrient-poor environments. A critical threshold of 300 kg N ha(-1) was identified, providing a framework to transform marginal sandy soils into productive, high-quality systems. These findings offer a sustainable pathway for cultivating climate-resilient crops, strengthening food security, and restoring degraded farmlands.

TaSLC25A4-7B is closely related to the biological processes involved in drought stress and the ABA signaling pathway through the regulation of stomata, providing a theoretical basis for exploring drought resistance in wheat. The solute carrier family 25 (SLC25) member SLC25A4 plays important roles in plant growth regulation. However, its roles in drought-stress response remain unclear. Here, we determined that the mitochondrial wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) SLC25A4-7B gene (TaSLC25A4-7B) was involved in regulating drought responses by coordinating stomatal aperture and abscisic acid (ABA). Tobacco and rice plants overexpressing TaSLC25A4-7B (OxTaSLC25A4-7B) showed increased stomatal aperture and/or size, as well as impaired drought tolerance. The larger stomata were associated with altered stomatal morphology, downregulated ABA synthesis-related genes and upregulated ABA degradation-related genes. Consistently, the endogenous ABA contents were markedly altered in tobacco OxTaSLC25A4-7B compared with wild type. Additionally, the larger stomata were associated with a higher photosynthetic capacity in rice OxTaSLC25A4-7B compared with Nipponbare. Under drought conditions, the OxTaSLC25A4-7B transgenic plants showed severe wilting phenotypes and increased contents of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde compared with the control. Furthermore, we found that wheat protein phosphatase type 2C binds to the promoter of TaSLC25A4-7B and inhibits the gene’s activity. The results suggested that TaSLC25A4-7B negatively regulated drought tolerance.

Seed priming is an effective seed pretreatment technology that enhances germination and overall crop performance by optimizing seed hydration and metabolic processes before planting. Seed quality is a critical determinant of cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum ) crop performance, in fl uencing germination, plant vigor, and yield. This study evaluates the effects of seed priming with potassium salts (1% and 2% KCl and K 2 SO 4 ) on germination, morphological traits, and Cry1Ac gene expression in three Bt cotton cultivars (IUB-201 3, NIAB-878B, FH142) as Cry1Ac enhance the pest resistance in Bt cotton and reduce the plant ' s dependence on chemical insecticides. Seeds were primed for six hours, air-dried, and sown in the fi eld. Germination rates, plant height, number of bolls per plant, boll weight, seed cotton yield, and ginning outturn (GOT) were assessed at crop maturity. Cry1Ac gene expression was quanti fi ed to explore the in fl uence of priming treatments on transgene activity. Results demonstrated that 1% K 2 SO 4 priming signi fi cantly enhanced germination and yield-related traits, with Cry1Ac expression peaking in the IUB-2013 cultivar under 1% K 2 SO 4 treatment. These fi ndings suggest that potassium-based halopriming improves cotton seedling establishment and Bt gene expression. This study addresses the critical gaps in understanding the effects of seed halopriming on morphological traits, germination, and expression of the Cry1Ac gene in Bt cotton while providing a novel eco-friendly and cost-effective halopriming approach, offering the potential to improve cotton production.

Wheat grain morphology, particularly grain length (GL) and width (GW), is a key determinant of yield. To improve the suboptimal grain dimensions of the local anthocyanin-rich variety Guizi 1 (GZ1), we crossed it with Zhongyan 96-3 (ZY96-3), an elite germplasm known for faster grain filling and superior grain size. A genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach was applied to an F2 population of 110 individuals derived from GZ1 x ZY96-3, resulting in the identification of 23,134 high-quality SNPs. Most of the SNPs associated with GL and GW were clustered on chromosomes 2B, 3A, and 3B. QTL mapping for GL revealed two major loci, GL1 on chromosome 2B and GL2 on chromosome 3B, and eight candidate genes were identified within their corresponding intervals (2B: 63.6-70.4 Mb; 3B: 631.5-633.3 Mb). These genes encode proteins potentially involved in grain size regulation, including a TOR2 regulation-associated protein, erect spike 2 (EP2), fibroblast growth factor 6 (FGF6), cellulose synthase-like (CSLD), RelA/pot homologue three family protein, and three GDSL esterase/lipase (GLIP) proteins. Additionally, we detected a QTL associated with GW on chromosome 3A and identified two candidate genes, TOR2 regulation and starch synthase within the 61.4-68.5 Mb interval. Overall, this study provides a strong theoretical and technical basis for wheat genetic improvement and offers valuable resources for precise QTL mapping and candidate gene discovery.

Purple wheat (GZ1) is a high-quality wheat variety, and understanding its starch accumulation is key to improving its quality. Investigating how phytohormone regulate starch accumulation during the development of GZ1 grains can shed light on the molecular mechanisms of starch accumulation, supporting optimized wheat production and breeding. This study explored the roles of the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonic acid (JA) in starch accumulation within purple wheat kernels. Wheat variety GZ1 was cultivated under controlled field conditions, with samples collected at 10, 25, and 35 days post-anthesis for RNA extraction, starch and enzyme activity measurements, paraffin sectioning, phytohormone analysis, and qPCR validation. During grain development at 10, 25, and 35 days post-anthesis (dpa), starch content increased progressively, with the rate of accumulation slowing at 35 dpa. The activities of starch biosynthetic enzymes, including GBSS, SSS, and AGPase, increased from 10 to 25 dpa and declined at 35 dpa. Paraffin section analysis revealed enhanced starch granule accumulation across stages, consistent with the results of starch content measurement. ABA levels showed a continuous increase from 10 to 35 dpa, while both JA and JA-Ile levels decreased from 10 to 25 dpa and then increased markedly at 35 dpa. Venn diagram and heat map analyses showed that at 10 dpa, most ABA-related genes were upregulated, while JA-related genes were predominantly downregulated. By 35 dpa, ABA-related genes exhibited widespread downregulation in number, while JA-related genes showed an almost equal split between up- and downregulation. qRT-PCR results confirmed that the expression trends of ABA- and JA-related genes were consistent with transcriptome data. Starch synthesis-related genes, including TPP-7A, AGPS1a, NAC019, and GBSS1, were upregulated in expression between 10 and 25 dpa and downregulated at 35 dpa. Correlation analysis showed that starch content had a strong positive correlation with ABA levels and the activities of starch biosynthetic enzymes (GBSS, SSS, and AGPase). Starch content exhibited a moderate positive correlation with JA levels and no correlation with JA-Ile levels. ABA levels were positively correlated with the activities of the three starch biosynthetic enzymes, while JA content showed a strong positive correlation only with SSS activity. This study elucidated the time-dependent regulatory roles of ABA and JA in starch accumulation during the natural development of GZ-1 seeds.

Wheat productivity is severely impacted by temperature extremes, highlighting the need to understand stress tolerance mechanisms. The Bcl-2-associated athanogene (BAG) protein family is known to regulate stress responses, yet its functional roles in wheat under heat and cold stress are not well understood. This study identified ten TaBAG genes in wheat, primarily located on chromosomes 2, 4, 5, and 7. Bioinformatics analysis revealed conserved domains, diverse gene structures, and stress-responsive promoter elements, with notable duplication events on chromosomes 7 A and 7D. Subcellular localization predictions indicated that most TaBAG proteins localize to the nucleus, which was experimentally confirmed for TaBAG5. TaBAG5 also showed interaction with a J domain-containing protein/ heat shock protein 40 (Hsp40) (W5CWD3), suggesting involvement in chaperone-mediated pathways. Gene expression profiling under heat (40 °C) and cold (4 °C) stress demonstrated differential regulation: TaBAG2, TaBAG3, TaBAG6, TaBAG9, and TaBAG10 were upregulated by heat, while TaBAG2, TaBAG3, TaBAG5, TaBAG8, and TaBAG9 were induced by cold. Conversely, TaBAG1 was downregulated under both conditions. These results indicate that TaBAG genes contribute significantly to abiotic stress responses in wheat, potentially via interactions with heat shock proteins, and offer valuable insights for the development of stress-resilient wheat cultivars.

Wheat is a major staple crop that plays a pivotal role in global food security. However, its productivity is increasingly compromised by environmental stresses such as heat, drought, salinity and heavy metal toxicity. The broad understanding of molecular mechanisms responsible for wheat resilience is reviewed, with a particular focus on heat shock proteins (HSPs) as key mediators of stress adjustment. HSPs play the role of molecular chaperones, whereby they stabilize proteins and prevent aggregation and oxidative stress to maintain the homeostatic function of cells in the most extreme conditions. We trained omics technologies such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to identify genes responsive to stress, thus boosting the breeding approach for better resilience in wheat. Now, genome editing tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 have hastened the development of climate-resilient wheat varieties, complementing traditional breeding strategies. Heavy metal toxicity disturbs the metabolic pathways; however, certain metals are micronutrients, and a balanced approach is essential to improve tolerance. Molecular breeding, precision agriculture, and sustainable soil management should be integrated into future studies to mitigate stress impacts and ensure stable yields. Our interdisciplinary approaches will drive sustainable agri-ecosystems for global food security amid climate change and degradation.

Climate change presents escalating threats to agricultural productivity and global food security, primarily through increased frequency and intensity of environmental stresses. Without adaptation measures, crop yields are projected to decline by 7

Castor (Ricinus communis L.), a member of the Euphorbiaceae family, is a non-edible oilseed crop extensively cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions worldwide for its diverse industrial uses. The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-associated athanogene (BAG) family is a diverse and well-conserved co-chaperone family present in both plants and mammals. BAG proteins interact with a wide range of proteins, regulating various functions, including stress response, growth, and development. However, the function of BAGs in oilseed crops like castor remains largely unknown. In this study, we discovered 9 BAG protein family members (RcBAGs) in castor through genome-wide scanning. We investigated chromosomal localization, performed in silico promoter analysis, conducted phylogenetic and synteny analyses, and examined gene architecture. Additionally, we predicted protein-protein interactions and assessed the responses of these genes to various abiotic stresses and hormones. Based on their cellular localization, the RcBAG family was categorized into nuclear, chloroplastic, and cytoplasmic groups. Syntenic gene pairs across different crops also validated the importance and functional conservation of these BAG genes during evolution. Furthermore, in Ricinus communis, the RcBAG genes were scattered unevenly throughout seven of the 10 chromosomes. The study reveals that RcBAG genes are crucial for stress management and castor growth, responding to abiotic stimuli through distinct regulatory pathways. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) investigation revealed that 9 distinct RcBAG genes were strongly induced after cold and heat treatments. Functional analysis and protein-protein interactions were used to predict the potential regulatory network of RcBAGs, revealing tight networking and signaling with HSP proteins. This study provides a foundation for future research into the molecular mechanisms and regulatory processes during R. communis growth, development, response to various stressors, and protein interactions.

Heavy metal stress is a critical challenge to agricultural productivity, necessitating deeper insights into the molecular mechanisms of metal transport in plants. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive genome-wide characterization of the Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein (NRAMP) gene family in Arabidopsis thaliana and identified six AtNRAMP genes. Phylogenetic and synteny analyses revealed their distribution into two distinct clades and evolutionary conservation with legumes such as Glycine max and Arachis hypogaea, indicating functional divergence and gene duplication events maintained under purifying selection. Conserved protein motifs and domains, particularly the NRAMP transmembrane domain, highlighted their conserved role in divalent metal ion transport, while cis-regulatory element analysis demonstrated enrichment of stress- and hormone-responsive elements, pointing to tight transcriptional regulation under environmental challenges. Structural modeling further supported the functional conservation of AtNRAMP proteins. Expression profiling showed clear tissue-specific expression under normal conditions and strong, differential regulation in response to cadmium and other heavy metals, as well as to the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA). Collectively, these results provide foundational insights into the evolutionary relationships, regulatory mechanisms, and stress-responsive expression of the AtNRAMP gene family, offering a framework for future functional studies and potential applications in developing crops with enhanced heavy metal tolerance and improved growth under stress conditions.

Shading plays an important role in determining nutrient content and yield fo wheat (Triticum aestivum ). However, the genetic mechanism underlying the effects of shading treatment on grain filling remains unclear. Therefore, we performed phenotypic and transcriptome analyses on wheat cv. ZY96-3 during grain development under normal and shaded conditions. Shading resulted in a significant decrease in grain size and 1000-grain weight. Correlation analysis revealed the strong effect of shading on the mean and maximum grain-filling rate and secondary grain-filling parameters R 2 and R 3 . And shading reduced starch content and starch-related enzyme activity (including granule-bound starch synthase and soluble starch synthase). Transcriptomic analyses showed that shading mainly affected pathways related to photosynthetic antenna proteins, carbon fixation in photosynthetic organisms, and starch and sucrose metabolism. Sixteen genes related to photosynthetic antenna protein and carbon fixation pathways were first upregulated and then downregulated; whereas all differentially expressed genes (PetC , Fd , LFNR1 , LFNR2 , PC , PsbO , PsaG , and PSB28 ) in the photosynthetic antenna protein pathway belonged to electron transport chain proteins. We found that shading treatment affects the physiological and molecular properties of grain development during the grain-filling stage. This study reveals new candidate genes (such as TaLFNR1-7A and TaFd-7A ) for breeding wheat varieties with high photosynthetic efficiency in regions with insufficient light intensity.

Climate change presents challenges to agriculture globally, necessitating to develop resilient production systems to safeguard food security, farm incomes and environmental sustainability. This review synthesises current strategies to raise climate resilience, with a focus on climate-smart agricultural practices, the selection and planting of stress-tolerant crop varieties and efficient water management. The review provides a critical analysis of biotechnological tools including gene editing through CRISPR-cas9 and marker-assisted selection that enable rapid development of region-specific crop improvements. The review also examines the under-explored approaches such as the use of beneficial stress-tolerant microbes, diversified cropping systems, and conservation agriculture. By integrating case studies from multiple geographic regions, it presents a comparative synthesis of context-specific successes and challenges. We suggest a framework to align technological innovation with policy support, farmer education and participatory stakeholder engagement. Special attention is given to the needs of smallholder farmers in climate-vulnerable regions. The review concludes by outlining actionable priorities, including the expansion of climate data services and the integration of ecological management practices to balance productivity with ecosystem health.

Climate change, with its increasing temperatures, is significantly disrupting global agricultural systems, and wheat, a key cereal crop faces severe challenges. Heat stress has emerged as a critical threat, accelerating wheat growth, leading to premature maturation, reduced grain filling, and ultimately lower yields. The situation is exacerbated by more frequent and intense heat waves, particularly in regions already struggling with water scarcity. Maintaining the delicate balance of temperature and water necessary for optimal wheat production is becoming challenging, posing a serious risk to global food security. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop adaptive strategies with innovations in breeding and transgenic technologies crucial to improving wheat resilience to environmental stresses, especially to combat the growing impacts of heat stress. Modern tools like CRISPR/Cas9, Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases, and Zinc Finger Nucleases have been instrumental in developing wheat varieties with improved traits. However, the future of wheat cultivation requires more than just resistance to a single stressor. As climate change intensifies, there is an urgent need for wheat varieties that can withstand multiple stresses, including heat, drought, and pests. Developing these multi-stress-tolerant cultivars is crucial for ensuring food security in a rapidly changing climate. Heat stress, worsened by climate change, threatens global wheat production and food security. Advanced breeding technologies, like CRISPR/Cas9, are essential for developing resilient wheat varieties that withstand multiple climate-related stresses.

Wheat yield is primarily determined by panicle density per unit area, grain count per spike, and grain weight. The proliferation of wheat spikes affects both the number of grains per spike and grain weight. However, the molecular regulatory mechanisms of wheat spike development are still largely elusive. In this study, we acquired high-quality sequencing data from 5989 cells derived from the double-ridge stage spike of a common wheat variety Jimai 22. The data revealed the presence of 10 distinct cell types, which were validated using RNA in situ hybridization and cell type-specific gene expression. The transition from promeristem to protoxylem and protophloem cells signifies the initiation of differentiation for protoxylem and primary protophloem cells within the promeristem. This process results in five distinct cellular differentiation states that correspond to the expression of 1410 genes. In wheat spikes, differential gene expression across eight developmental stages revealed seven unique expression patterns. Specifically, genes differentially expressed in stages C3, C4, C5, and C7 were identified as being uniquely active during the anther meristem, double ridge, floral meristem, and pistil primordium stages, respectively. Furthermore, the differential genes in stage C2 are likely to encompass critical genes that regulate the reproductive growth of wheat spikes, while those in stage C1 may significantly influence floret creation and development. Additionally, the transition of gene triplets between suppressed and balanced types represents a key element affecting spike differentiation. In this context, dominant gene triplets primarily fulfill functions associated with housekeeping genes. This study explores the impact of asymmetrical gene triplet expression during spike development on the regulation of wheat yield traits, utilizing the single-cell transcriptome atlas of the wheat spike. Our analysis of homologous gene asymmetrical expression throughout development, coupled with single-cell resolution, suggests this asymmetry could be a pivotal factor in cell differentiation.

Calcineurin B-like interacting protein kinases (CIPKs) are central regulators of plant development and stress adaptation. However, the specific roles of individual CIPK family members remain largely unexplored in major crops like wheat and rice. In this study, we characterized the function of TaCIPK19-3D through overexpression in transgenic rice and CRISPR-Cas9-mediated oscipk19 knockout lines. Expression profiling and subcellular localization analyses revealed that TaCIPK19-3D is associated with chloroplast development and metabolic activity. Overexpression lines exhibited enhanced chloroplast structure, increased chlorophyll biosynthesis, stomatal conductance, net photosynthetic rate, transpiration, and elevated levels of K⁺/Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺, resulting in improved growth and yield compared to wild-type and mutant lines. Notably, TaCIPK19-3D overexpression conferred increased salt tolerance by upregulating ABA signaling, antioxidant responses, and proline biosynthesis. Key genes involved in chlorophyll synthesis (OsCAO, OsCHLH) and salt stress responses (OsAPX2, OsP5CS, OsABA2) were significantly upregulated in transgenic plants. Protein interaction studies using yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays demonstrated that TaCIPK19-3D interacts with TaFBA-4D and four CBL proteins (TaCBL1, TaCBL3, TaCBL4, and TaCBL7). Collectively, our findings reveal that TaCIPK19-3D positively regulates photosynthesis, ion homeostasis, and stress-responsive signaling pathways, highlighting its potential for improving crop productivity and stress resilience in wheat and rice.