A study on the long-term ecological impacts of specialized behavior can provide valuable insights for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management, particularly in the context of climate change. The endangered primate Rhinopithecus bieti in temperate forest ecosystems relies primarily on the lichen Usnea longissima as its fallback food source. To investigate whether this specialized diet sustains forest health through trophic interactions, our study employed a three-tiered approach: (1) We first examined the impact of U. longissima on trees by comparing the health of branches covered with and without lichen. Findings reveal U. longissima exhibits harm to host trees, as lichen-covered branches displayed significantly higher rates of dieback. (2) Using habitats with varying extinction timelines of R. bieti , we quantified how the presence of R. bieti contributes to reducing U. longissima biomass. Results showed lichen biomass tripled in habitats where the species vanished 40 years ago compared to occupied habitats. (3) We finally used controlled artificial experiments that demonstrated that R. bieti's feeding activities may enhance U. longissima dispersal and growth. Our findings suggest that R. bieti may function as a natural regulator of lichen biomass, potentially helping to prevent overgrowth that could destabilize forest health. Notably, the monkeys' foraging behavior may not only control lichen proliferation but also help to promote its regeneration. This study underscores that restoring R. bieti populations would synergistically benefit both U. longissima viability and forest resilience, advocating for integrated conservation strategies that preserve specialized ecological interactions. Due to the fact that specialized diet species face severe survival challenges in the context of climate and environmental changes, future efforts should be focused on their ecological adaptation mechanisms and improving sustainable management strategies.

The decomposition of foliar litter and the release of nutrients, which are sensitive to climate changes, are critical regulators of forest ecosystem function. Yet, how litter nutrient allocation responds to frequently elevated temperature and drought, and whether they mediate the formation of plant species richness at the community level under predicted climate patterns are unknown. In this study, we monitored the long-term dynamic changes in concentrations and amounts of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) of fallen foliar by 132 litter traps, and explored the associations with changes in plant species richness with 870 seedling quadrats surrounding from 2015 to 2022 in a 60-ha tropical rainforest plot in China. During the eight years, as the annually averaged temperature increased, foliar litter N concentration significantly decreased. When annual precipitation decreased, foliar litter P concentration also significantly decreased. Correspondingly, with the decrease in precipitation, the ratios of N:P concentrations only showed a marginally significant increase. This N and P nutrient depletion significantly decreased the litter quality, but did not change the total nutrient amount allocated in litters. More interestingly, the rare species ratios of surrounding seedlings increased significantly and positively correlated with the foliar litter N:P ratios by the indirect regulation of decreasing precipitation, which might cause the increase of fresh leaves N:P to facilitate the rare species. Therefore, under the climate change scenario, there is a subtle balance to maintain the nutrient cycles and species richness, which was unnoticed before.

Human sustainable development relies on ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF), which reflects an ecosystem's capacity to sustain multiple functions simultaneously. The impact of species mixing on mangrove ecosystem multifunctionality remains understudied, lacking multidimensional indicator-based assessments. To address this critical knowledge gap, we assessed EMF of two mixed mangrove patterns (LR + SA, BG + SA) and a monospecific SA plantation, applying mean- and threshold-based EMF quantification using 50 soil, water, vegetation, air, and biodiversity indicators. Results showed mixed forests had 13.42% higher EMF than SA monocultures, though this difference was not statistically significant, with no distinction between the two cultivation patterns. Mixed forests exhibited stronger functional coupling, while monocultures showed isolated functions. Soil carbon storage emerged as the core driver of mangrove EMF, with pneumatophore biomass acting as the key regulatory factor. In summary, this study clarified the functional advantages and regulatory mechanisms of mixed mangrove forests, recommending LR + SA for carbon stocks and BG + SA for biodiversity conservation and improvement of soil quality, thereby providing a scientific basis for mangrove ecological restoration.

The “SLOSS” (Single Large or Several Small) debate remains one of the most enduring and influential issues in conservation biology, with divergent findings continuing to shape the application of theory in protected area design and biodiversity conservation. Here, we argue that resolving this debate requires explicit consideration of both taxonomic groups and ecological context, alongside the development of actionable, scenario-specific management recommendations. Focusing on primates, we investigated SLOSS dynamics and optimal reserve size ranges in western Yunnan, China, a global biodiversity hotspot, at both patch and landscape scales. At the landscape scale, under a constant total area, a network of several small patches supported higher cumulative species richness than a single large patch (SS > SL), driven by the capacity of spatially dispersed fragments to collectively intercept highly heterogeneous elevational gradients and diverse micro-habitats. In addition, the relationship between primate species density and patch area followed a unimodal pattern, peaking at 6.92 km². We further demonstrate that the highly fragmented Xiaoheishan Provincial Nature Reserve, composed of multiple small patches, effectively sustains seven primate species, representing 28% of China’s primate fauna and 46.7% of the regional species pool. These findings underscore the critical role of small habitat patches and their network configuration in maintaining primate biodiversity. We recommend that protected area planning prioritize the identification of optimal area ranges that maximize species density, thereby optimizing the spatial efficiency of biodiversity representation (i.e., maximizing species protection per unit of dedicated area), and adopt a hierarchical, context-dependent design framework to develop more effective and resilient conservation networks.

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants with widespread global distribution, continuously accumulating in soils and posing risks of cross-media pollution. Current soil MP detection methods lack unified standards, suffering from high inter-laboratory variability and cost, which become key bottlenecks limiting data comparability and global microplastics pollution control. Here, we systematically reviewed soil MPs studies (2020–2024) and based on stepwise verification, we established a standardized, reproducible detection method: soil samples were dried at 80 °C for 12 h; density separation was performed in Erlenmeyer flasks with decantation, 10 s glass rod stirring, and 12 h settling, repeated five times; digestion was conducted using a 1:2 volume ratio of H2O2 to supernatant at 80 °C for 8 h; and MPs were quantified via stereo-microscopy combined with ImageJ. It should be noted that the use of NaCl limits the recovery of high-density polymers (e.g., PVC, PET), and the minimum detectable particle size is approximately 127 µm. The method was validated in sandy, loam, and clay soils, achieving an average recovery rate of 96.4%, with a processing time of 68 h and a cost of USD 9.77 per sample. In contrast to previous fragmented, non-standardized protocols, this workflow synergistically optimizes high recovery efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and broad applicability, offering a low-cost, efficient, and widely applicable approach for soil MPs monitoring, supporting data comparability across studies and contributing to global pollution assessment and the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

High-altitude animals rely on vertical spatial adaptation to cope with harsh environments, yet the underlying drivers of their seasonal altitudinal distribution remain poorly understood. This study investigated how solar radiation, seasonal high-quality food resources and stable foods shape the altitudinal distribution of the highest-altitude primate Rhinopithecus bieti, to uncover its survival strategies. Through systematic environmental data collection and three-year field tracking of a wild group in the Lasha Mountains, northwest Yunnan, China, we identified consistent seasonal patterns: spring in low-altitude habitats, summer at highest elevations, and intermediate ranges during autumn/winter. Statistical modeling revealed seasonally shifting environmental dependencies. Summer showed no resource limitations, while autumn introduced solar exposure and mature leaves as positive synergistic factors (50% model explanatory power). Winter exhibited peak environmental pressure (80%), with solar and buds becoming critical, though revealing a trade-off between foraging and thermoregulation. Spring demonstrated the strongest environmental coupling (86%), where solar and high-quality food showed significant positive synergy, enabling physical recovery. The species displays remarkable ecological plasticity, with solar being the core cold-season driver. The winter-to-spring transition from resource trade-off to synergy reflects dynamic behavioral adaptations to seasonal climate and nutritional bottlenecks, offering new insights into primate survival strategies in extreme environments.

IntroductionTidal inundation, characterized by its duration and depth, is a fundamental driver of mangrove zonation and community assembly. A mechanistic understanding of how mangrove species, particularly those with restricted ranges, adapt to this dual hydrological stress is critical for informing conservation and restoration strategies under changing environmental conditions. This study examined the combined effects of flooding duration and depth on seedlings of two thermophilic mangrove species with narrow distributions in China: Lumnitzera littorea and Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea.MethodsA controlled tidal simulation system was employed to apply nine interactive treatments, combining three flooding durations (4, 8, and 12 h·d−1) with three depths (0, 20, and 40 cm). A comprehensive suite of seventeen functional traits was measured, encompassing seedling growth, biomass allocation, root morphology, and root anatomical structure.ResultsFor L. littorea, growth, biomass accumulation, and root morphological were optimal under a specific, narrow range of flooding conditions (4 h·d−1 & 20 cm), highlighting a limited flooding tolerance. In contrast, S. hydrophyllacea exhibited maximal performance across most measured traits, including adaptive modifications in root anatomy (cortical thickness, stele proportion), particularly under the 8 h·d−1 & 20 cm treatment, indicating greater phenotypic plasticity. Principal component analysis further underscored these distinct adaptive strategies: L. littorea relied on a tightly correlated suite of traits centered on basal diameter, biomass, and root morphology, while S. hydrophyllacea utilized a multidimensional strategy coordinating height, diameter, biomass, and root anatomy traits.ConclusionOur findings reveal that co-occurring mangrove species adopt divergent ecological strategies to cope with identical dual flooding stress; these strategies span a continuum from conservative specialization to plastic generalization. This study provides a trait-based framework for understanding niche differentiation and advances species-specific selection criteria for restoring vulnerable mangroves in heterogeneous intertidal environments.

Soil viruses are critical modulators of microbial communities and biogeochemical cycles, yet how their ecological responses to environmental gradients like soil depth, carbon and nutrient availability remain poorly understood. We investigated soil viral communities in a long-term field experiment with distinct carbon and nutrient levels at two depths, 0-10cm (top soil) and 10-20cm (subsoil). In the subsoil, viral life strategies were related with prokaryotic growth rates, showing a positive correlation with the abundance of lysogenic viruses and a negative correlation with that of lytic viruses. This coupling was not observed in the topsoil. Viral species richness was higher in high-carbon soils than in low-carbon soils at both depths. The abundance of viral anti-CRISPR genes, which encode proteins that disable host defense systems, increased by 2- to 3-fold in soils with both high carbon and nutrient availability compared to soils with high nutrient but low carbon availability. Conversely, in high-carbon soils, the abundance of viral reverse transcriptase genes was reduced, suggesting a potential shift in viral diversification strategies in response to resource limitation. The function of viral auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs) of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) shifted from the degradation of recalcitrant cellulose in low-carbon soils to the breakdown of labile substrates in high-carbon environments. Collectively, our findings suggest that viral life strategies, anti-defense capabilities, and AMG functions are closely associated with both soil depth and resource availability, providing insights into understanding their context-dependent role in terrestrial ecosystems.

Seasonal body mass fluctuations in mammals reflect fundamental trade-offs between ecological constraints and reproductive effort, yet few studies have simultaneously linked these dynamic changes with activity budgets in high-altitude primates inhabiting extreme-temperature environments. We examined the effects of environmental stress and mating effort on body mass dynamics in black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti). Using monthly non-invasive monitoring over a full annual cycle, we obtained 464 body mass records from free-ranging adults (127 male records, 337 female records). Both sexes showed marked seasonal variation: body mass peaked in spring and autumn, declined moderately in winter (males: -7.4%, females: -2.9%), and dropped more sharply during the mating season (males: -11.1%, females: -12.9%). Male mass loss was positively correlated with the number of mates. Seasonal shifts in activity budgets accompanied these patterns: in summer, males increased movement and females increased both movement and social interaction, while both sexes reduced resting; in winter, both sexes increased feeding time, with females additionally reducing social activities. These findings reveal two distinct phases of body mass loss. Body mass decline was more pronounced during the mating season than in winter, a pattern that may be associated with higher energetic costs related to reproductive activity. Our study demonstrates how high-altitude primates balance survival and reproduction through flexible energy allocation, offering key insights into their seasonal energy allocation resilience in provisioned high-altitude habitats.

Primate interspecific interactions with both other primates and non-primate species range from predator–prey dynamics to affiliative behaviors such as grooming, play, and carrying. While many primates participate in interspecific associations or commensal relationships, to our knowledge interspecific social interactions have never been systematically synthesized. Here, we present the first comprehensive review of such interactions, compiling 427 cases from the literature, media sources, and a global survey of primatologists. These involved 88 primate species and 127 non-primate species (including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, malacostracans, and insects) across wild (n = 311) and captive (n = 111) contexts. The most frequent interactions occurred within or between primate families (e.g., Cercopithecidae–Cercopithecidae, Cebidae–Atelidae), though affiliative behaviors were also directed toward distantly related taxa such as dogs and birds. Play (n = 139) and grooming (n = 136) were most common. Juveniles and infants predominantly engaged in play, while adult females were more likely to groom. Adult males were less affiliative overall. Contrary to expectations, affiliative behaviors were not more often directed toward immature than adult heterospecifics. Primates were the initiators in most interactions. These findings offer new insights into the diversity and contexts of heterospecific sociality in primates and suggest that some behavioral tendencies relevant to later forms of human–animal companionship – such as caregiving, tolerance, and exploratory play – may be more widespread among primates than previously recognized.

Conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD) is widely regarded as a key mechanism maintaining plant diversity and is classically attributed to host-specific pathogens or herbivores. However, whether animal-mediated seed dispersal may contribute to CNDD-like spatial patterns remains poorly understood. Such animal-mediated seed dispersal behaviors are widespread in forests but are difficult to study because of their stochastic nature. Here, we investigated the distance-dependent spatial distribution of seedlings of two Cyclobalanopsis species around parent trees (at seven distances from 0 to 30 m) in a tropical forest, comparing directions with and without observed nut-storage activity by two squirrel species that actively carve and store nuts away from parent trees. Results showed that seedling numbers exhibited a clear nonlinear distance-dependent pattern along directions with squirrel nut-storage activity, with significantly higher numbers at 20 m than in both same-tree and different-tree controls. Pathogen infection in sapling fine roots did not show a significant distance-dependent pattern. These findings provide a new perspective on CNDD-like pattern formation by highlighting animal-mediated seed redistribution as an additional process that may be associated with seedling spatial patterns.

The high energy demands of primates during pregnancy and lactation often limit their breeding success due to the availability of food resources. Until now, few studies have focused on the effects of continuous provisioning on primate reproduction. To assess the impact of continuous provisioning on breeding success, we collected data on female reproductive status (primiparous or multiparous), maternal age of births, births, deaths, and sex of infants in a free-ranging semi-provisioned band (FSB) of Rhinopithecus bieti in China from 2010 to 2023. Our results indicate that provisioning significantly increases infant survival. After 8 years of provisioning, 11 females began a pattern of giving birth to infants in two continuous years, skipping reproduction in the third year, and resuming in the fourth year. Continuous provisioning led to a year-by-year reduction in the interbirth interval (IBI) and a gradual decrease in the primiparous age. The percentage of consecutively breeding females (CBFs) and their offspring increased annually and with the mother's ages. Conversely, the percentage of offspring from non-consecutively breeding females (NBFs) decreased over time and with maternal age. Each CBF annually produced 9.4% more infants compared to NBFs. Compared to NBFs, CBFs had a higher maternal age at births, a higher fertility rate, a higher infant survival rate, and a 11.7% shorter IBI. Furthermore, compared to the non-provisioned wild band (NPB), females in the FSB gave birth 128 days earlier, had an 18.9% annual increase in the number of offspring per female, and showed 1.2 times higher infant survival beyond 12 months. Our study demonstrates that provisioning significantly enhances reproductive success and population size. However, before promoting provisioning as a conservation tool to stabilize and recover endangered wildlife populations, it is essential to thoroughly evaluate its potential risks, such as nutritional imbalances, increased stress, and the transmission of diseases.

The southeastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Yunnan, China) exhibits high biodiversity but stark differences in species richness between its western Longitudinal Range Gorge (LRG) and eastern Yunnan Plateau (YP). We collected distribution data for 16 primate species in Yunnan and analyzed palynological records over the past 20 ka from 21 localities to identify the biogeographic, climatic, and anthropogenic factors that have driven the present-day distribution of primates in this region. By integrating local ecological knowledge, field surveys, species distribution models, niche utilization rates, and historical vegetation and land use changes, we found that spatial-temporal shifts in the monsoon climate have been a critical factor in shaping primate species richness on the southeastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Compared to the YP, the LRG receives more precipitation, has more limited seasonal temperature variation, and has higher minimum temperatures during the coldest month. These conditions have facilitated the development of moist evergreen broadleaf forests, which represent a more suitable habitat for the 14 primate species that inhabit this area. In contrast, the drought-adapted forests of the YP support only one primate species. Palynological records indicate that the differentiation of the LRG and YP predates human influence. However, over the past 2000  years, anthropogenic habitat loss and hunting have significantly affected the distribution of primates. The ranges of gibbons, langurs, and snub-nosed monkeys are now restricted to the central and northern regions of the LRG and have disappeared from lower elevations. Lorises have disappeared from their northernmost range. In contrast, the distribution of macaques has remained relatively stable. The Yangtze-Red River-24° N line marks the biogeographic boundary of high primate species richness and biodiversity in the LRG and southeastern Yunnan. Our research suggests that changes in monsoon climate have fundamentally shaped contemporary species richness, while recent anthropogenic pressures have caused 'range contraction' for many taxa.

Tree mycorrhizal associations have substantial consequences for soil organic carbon (SOC), but it remains unclear how nutrient availability will regulate the performance of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) trees, and then consequently affect SOC sequestration in tropical forest soils. This study characterized the performances of AM and ECM trees, SOC content, and soil microbial functions under variable soil nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content across an intact tropical rainforest based on the spatial dataset from a 60-ha dynamic plot and fitted statistical models to examine the mycorrhizal and nutrient controls on SOC stocks. ECM trees showed a better performance in soils containing higher N in total or in NH4+ forms and enhanced SOC content via increases in both species richness and basal area, which led to an increase in SOC as soil N content evaluated. AM trees had a greater basal area at N-richer (i.e., available N and NH4+) niches while a higher species richness under higher soil P levels (i.e., total and available P). The AM tree community patterns had inconsistent regulations on SOC, with basal area showing a positive while species richness exerting a negative effect on SOC content. Such counteracting effects from AM trees might attenuate SOC accumulation along the P gradient, resulting in a positive trend in SOC with soil total N:P ratios. As soil available P increased, species richness of AM trees increased, which was accompanied by a higher abundance of pathogens while a lower abundance of AM fungi. This indicated a decreased dependence of AM trees on mycorrhizal P acquisition, accompanied by the high susceptibility of roots to pathogen attacks, which may promote AM tree diversity. The performances of ECM trees were positively related to ECM fungi abundance, offering ECM trees a competitive P strategy and pathogen resistance. Summarily, our results suggest that both the basal area and species richness of mycorrhizal trees act as significant regulators for SOC sequestration along soil N or P gradient in tropical forests. Such findings provide a mechanistic understanding of soil C dynamics during vegetation changes under the rising global stoichiometric imbalance between N and P.

Wildlife camera trap (CT) surveys typically employ two-dimensional equal-area grid sampling, which often neglects the influence of complex mountainous terrain on species distribution, potentially yielding misleading outcomes. A watershed, incorporating diverse habitats from high to low elevations and from rivers to ridges, aligns with complex mountains. Monitoring based on watersheds might address this. In southwest China's mountain forests, under comparable sampling intensities, we contrasted the capture rate (CR), species richness, and relative abundance index (RAI) of dominant species among watershed, 1 x 1 km(2) grid, and elevation gradient patterns. Also, habitat factor correlations and heterogeneities were analyzed. Results reveal higher CR, species richness, and habitat heterogeneity in the watershed pattern. The elevation gradient pattern shows more stable species and RAI than the grid pattern. In small-scale mountains, topographic factors indirectly affect CT survey results via vegetation distribution. Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) indicates significant differences in species and community among watersheds. Using watersheds as sampling units for CTs can match the mountains' elevation differences and complex topography well, aids in capturing wildlife diversity and understanding mountain species distribution. Therefore, we recommend that the spatial sample design in mountainous areas should be based on watersheds, taking elevation gradients and topography into consideration.

Primates, 69% of which are threatened with extinction, are the third most specious order of mammals. We used primates as model taxa to examine the umbrella effects of primates on ecosystem services and the protection of other vertebrates and seed plants in Yunnan Province, China. We identified areas of conservation priority for 16 primate species and determined which other threatened and endemic terrestrial vertebrates and seed plants would be protected through a program targeting primate conservation. Areas of high primate species richness were spatially correlated with the distribution of 601 species of threatened and endemic vertebrates and 4010 seed plants. Primate species richness was positively correlated with carbon sequestration and enhanced water and soil conservation and coincided with future areas of climate refugia. If 30% of Yunnan's land area were designated as primate conservation priority areas, then 52.3% of the province's average annual carbon sequestration, 51.7% of its water conservation, 54.1% of its soil retention, and 30-33% of its climate-stable areas would be protected. Protecting primates as umbrella taxa uniquely contributes to maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem services that promote ecosystem stability. Although we focused on a single mammalian order in a single region, our approach for umbrella taxa evaluation has broad applicability and can help achieve multiple conservation targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

群落结构的恢复能力是判断人工混交林营建成功与否的重要指标。为探究亚热带人工混交林的群落结构及其恢复特征，该研究以广东省佛山市云勇林场2010年对杉木纯林进行皆伐并种植阔叶乡土树种后形成的人工混交林为研究对象，通过分析2020年在典型区域建设的7.92 hm 2 样地群落调查数据，计算了物种多样性、重要值、径级结构和胸高断面积等指标。结果表明：（1）云勇林场样地在经过10年的自然恢复后，共有47科101属136种木本和藤本植物进入群落并成功定殖且包含78种稀有种，表明亚热带人工混交林具有较强的物种多样性恢复能力。（2）云勇林场样地独立植株个体的平均胸径为8.47 cm,植株径级分布总体呈现为倒“J”形，表明群落更新良好且处于相对稳定状态。此外，早期人为引入物种能够实现自然更新，但由于恢复时间较短，其径级结构主要表现为钟形曲线。（3）仅物种多度与胸高断面积表现为较强的显著正相关关系，其余物种多样性指标均与胸高断面积表现为显著负相关关系，表明人工混交林演替早期的胸高断面积仍主要由造林初期人为引入物种决定。随着人工混交林演替进程中共存物种间生态位互补性的逐渐增强，有望促进物种多样性与群落生产力的同步提升。综上认为，该研究发现亚热带人工混交林具有较强的群落结构恢复能力，研究结果有助于为亚热带人工混交林的管理提供科学依据。

High global inputs of nitrogen (N) compared with relatively low inputs of phosphorus (P) increase nutrient imbalances that may cause substantial shifts in plant functional traits and modulate resource utilization strategies, which are associated with soil microbial communities. These community-level trait-based adaptations and the responses of soil microbiomes to the projected nutrient changes remain largely unexplored. Here, we characterized the nutrient-induced shifts in plant functional traits and microbial communities in P-limited tropical rainforest soils by combining spatial multivariate analyses across 160 km2 of primary and secondary tropical rainforest with an in situ 14-year nutrient addition experiment. The links between plant traits and microbial composition depending on soil N and P contents were examined to test how vegetation regulates the responses of microbial communities to nutrient input. Elevated soil N increased P limitation and thus led to a shift in leaf traits representing a conservative economy, as indicated by increases in leaf N:P ratios and leaf dry matter content. In response to the conservative shift in plant traits, soil bacterial r-strategists, arbuscular mycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungal guilds increased in relative abundance and thus were consistently enriched with increasing N content in soil. Addition of P to soil, however, led to increases in vegetation traits for acquisition economy, characterized by increases in leaf P content, specific leaf area, and trait diversity. With the shift to traits for acquisition in high-P soils, the relative abundance of bacterial K-strategists and ectomycorrhizal fungi rasied. Thus, vegetation traits have selective effects on soil microbiomes to acquire specific functions needed for P acquisition in P deficient tropical soil, which may, in turn, accelerate nutrient cycles and impact soil carbon sequestration. Our results suggest that models need to incorporate plant traits in predicting microbial dynamics and the associated functions under changing nutrient conditions.

This study addresses a critical challenge in global conservation: understanding how rare species contribute to ecosystem structure and resilience. The ecological role of the endangered black-and-white snub-nosed monkey in China’s temperate mountain forests was examined, with the hypothesis that its tree-shaking behavior alters forest structure and microclimates to enhance ecosystem health. To assess long-term impacts, current monkey-inhabited forests were compared with historical sites abandoned over decades, by analyzing tree gaps, forest structure, and environmental conditions. Monkeys’ canopy-disturbing actions were also directly observed. Findings revealed monkey activity created more canopy gaps (38.3% in current habitats vs. 29.9~33.5% in abandoned sites) and altered microclimate conditions, which boosted plant diversity and optimized the community’s vertical and age structures. Current forests supported nearly twice as many tree species, 2.5 times as many shrub species, and threefold more herb species than areas abandoned for 40 years. Even 20 years after monkeys disappeared, abandoned sites retained higher diversity and gaps, showing lasting ecological benefits. These results confirm the monkey’s vital role as a resilience promoter, demonstrating how rare species can shape healthier ecosystems. This highlights the need to prioritize protecting such species, as their survival not only preserves biodiversity but also sustains ecosystem functions crucial for human well-being.

Glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), is a metabolite exuded by the extraradical hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which enhances soil structure and consequently is often associated with improved fertility in forest soils. This study investigates how topography and local environmental conditions influence GRSP and its ratio with soil organic carbon (GRSP/SOC) to support forest management and carbon stock conservation. In a 60-ha Jianfengling tropical montane rainforest plot, we investigated the spatial patterns of GRSP and GRSP/SOC across ridges, slopes, and valleys. Using a Random Forest model that accounted for spatial autocorrelation, we assessed how GRSP and GRSP/SOC varied with respect to topography, plant diversity, and soil physicochemistry. GRSP and GRSP/SOC exhibited strong spatial autocorrelation, with contrasting topographic trends: GRSP peaked in ridges but was lowest in valleys, whereas GRSP/SOC was highest in valleys. Soil total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and pH were key predictors of GRSP in ridges, while pH was the critical predictor of GRSP/SOC in valleys. Notably, total tree diversity—but not AMF-associated tree abundance or biomass— was significantly correlated with the relative contribution of easily extractable GRSP to SOC. Topography strongly influences the spatial distribution of GRSP and GRSP/SOC in tropical montane rainforests, with divergent patterns between these metrics. Total tree diversity, rather than AMF tree diversity, better predicts GRSP/SOC variations, evidence of important feedbacks between plant communities and the potential to sequester carbon in soil. These findings highlight the need to integrate landscape heterogeneity and biodiversity into forest carbon management strategies.