Amid ongoing globalisation, large cities are becoming increasingly attractive to migrants, resulting in a more multiethnic population composition, which underscores the growing importance of studying interethnic relations in metropolises. This work aims to explore the spatial localisation of ten ethnic groups residing in St. Petersburg: Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars, Jews, Georgians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Tajiks and Moldovans. Using the ethnic concentration coefficient, the study examines the territorial heterogeneity of settlement among the city’s largest ethnic diasporas to identify patterns in residential choice. The data on national composition are derived from all-Russian population censuses. Most national minorities are distributed rather evenly across the city, but the Jewish and Georgian communities are notably concentrated in the central district of St. Petersburg. At the same time, the migration restrictions imposed due to the COVID-19 pandemic not only decreased the size of the Uzbek and Tajik diasporas, thereby normalising their gender and age distribution but also led to a more even dispersion of these ethnic groups across the city. Currently, there is no evident correlation between the spatial concentration of most ethnic groups in St. Petersburg and their level of social well-being.

Studies on post-socialist suburbanization, which originally focused on demand side dynamics and linear narratives of modernization, have progressively adopted more holistic approaches that consider the various dimensions and factors behind the phenomenon. However, there are still significant gaps and shortcomings affecting this research domain; studies encompassing demand side and supply side dynamics are rare, and so are comparative perspectives. The phenomenon has rarely been analyzed in the context of broader metropolitan change, together with other dynamics such as inner-city gentrification, degradation, or maintenance/regeneration of socialist era residential neighborhoods. This study addresses the mentioned gaps through a multi-dimensional comparative pilot analysis of suburban dynamics in Saint Petersburg and Riga. The analysis encompasses the spatial extent of demographic, socioeconomic, and housing market dynamics within the broader context of metropolitan change. The findings reveal a picture of a demographically and economically significant phenomenon with remarkable implications for macro- and micro-level socio-spatial segmentation; the distinctive features between the two cases are primarily due to migration dynamics and the short/medium term effects of the 2008 financial crisis on the real estate market and industry. Overall, the suburban option appears to be an attractive option for the demand side (in terms of an economic trade-off or societal aspiration) as well as a safe and profitable option for developers.

The social fragmentation of the US population has pronounced ethno-territorial features. On the example of ten ethnic groups of Americans of various ancestry (German, Italian, Polish, Russian, Chinese, Asian Indian, Filipino, Mexican, Cuban, Salvadoran), the spatial features of social inequality are examined. Six indicators of social well-being were considered in three areas: education, employment status and earnings. The indicators under consideration include: 1) the proportion of individuals without a high school diploma; 2) the proportion of individuals with a bachelor's degree or higher; 3) the proportion of individuals who are not in the labor force; 4) the unemployment rate; 5) median annual earnings; 6) the proportion of individuals with income below poverty level. The states and the District of Columbia were taken as the spatial unit for analyzing the ethno-territorial heterogeneity of social inequality in the United States. The study revealed the socio-spatial heterogeneity of the US territory, determined the hierarchy of ethnic groups in terms of social well-being, and identified states that have the highest deviations from the "normal" distribution of the indicators under consideration. The results obtained make it possible to judge both the influence of ethnic origin and a specific territory on the level of social well-being of the US population. The existing social hierarchy of the considered ethnic groups is highly stable in most states. More often than not, members of a particular ethnic group living in more socially wealthy states will outperform members of the same group living in less socially wealthy states in terms of social well-being. However, this feature is not typical for all states and ethnic groups equally. This allows us to assert that in the United States, inequality between ethnic groups can acquire its own specific characteristics depending on a particular territory.

Research into the socio-spatial dynamics in Central-Eastern European cities is an important area of contemporary transition studies. Open issues in this domain range from defining a theoretical framework to data availability and methodological approaches. As to the former aspect, recent literature focuses on the hybrid nature of the post-socialist urban space, which underwent transformation in the conditions of globalization and economic liberalization; the earlier model of spatial development changed dramatically as a result. The multi-scalar and comparative approaches may shed new light on the complex patterns of urban socio-spatial differentiation and its post-Soviet dynamics. Growing regional socio-economic imbalances observed in the former socialist states are lending new urgency to this area of research. This study employs a comparative approach to investigate post-1991 socio-spatial transformations in St Petersburg and Riga - the two largest post-Soviet urban centres in the Baltic Sea region. An important result of the research is a methodology for multi-leva el analysis of changes in the urban environment of post-socialist cities. Data from post-1991 national censuses and population registers are used to calculate measures of social well-being in urban districts as well as to identify territorial imbalances. Comparative analysis makes it possible to trace the spatial patterns of post-Soviet differentiation and set out guidelines for further research in the area.

Изучение пространственных различий социального состава населения городов Восточной Европы — важное направление современных исследований периода перехода от плановой экономики к рыночным отношениям. Предмет дискуссии при этом варьируется от определения теоретических основ исследования до сбора исходных данных и методов их обработки. Что касается первого аспекта, большинство исследований сегодня фокусируется на смешанной природе пространства постсоциалистических городов, вытекающей из характера их модернизации в условиях глобализации и экономической либерализации, что существенно изменяет заданную ранее модель их пространственного развития. В этой связи можно утверждать, что использование полимасштабного сравнительного подхода позволит по-новому взглянуть на различные модели пространственной дифференциации социального состава населения городов и его динамики в постсоветский период. Данное направление исследования становится все более актуальным благодаря росту территориальных диспропорций социально-эко­номического неравенства, наблюдаемого в бывших социалистических странах, а также в их отдельных регионах и городах.

This study consists of a comparative analysis of suburbanization patterns and their relations with socio-spatial segmentation and segregation dynamics in the functional areas of St.Petersburg and Riga, based on quantitative secondary socio-economic data available at neighborhood and municipal level. Results show similar patterns of suburbanization and segmentation in the two case studies, and a significant connection between the two phenomena. At the same time, some significant differences are found out, depending on the demographic, economic, and market demand specificities of the two countries and cities. Finally, an integration of the proposed meso level analysis with multi-scalar perspectives and an extension of the comparative perspective to Soviet planned cities is proposed.

Статья посвящена анализу размещения по территории США основных этнических групп населения европейского происхождения. Сформированное потомками иммигрантов население Соединенных Штатов имеет различные этнические «корни». До настоящего времени большинство жителей США относится к потомкам переселенцев из стран Европы. На примере пяти наиболее многочисленных этнических групп американцев европейского происхождения — англичан, немцев, ирландцев, французов, итальянцев — рассмотрены пространственные изменения их размещения по территории страны в период с 1980 по 2015 гг. Процессы этнической ассимиляции различных этнических групп в американском «плавильном котле» происходят с разной интенсивностью. Но скорость изменения этнической самоидентификации зависит не только от принадлежности к определенной этнической группе, но и от особенностей ее пространственной локализации. Из пяти рассматриваемых этнических групп за последние 35 лет наиболее быстрыми темпами сократилось количество американцев английского и французского происхождения. В то же время, численность «итальянцев» за тот же период выросла более чем на 40 %. Появление с 1990 г. в учетных данных Бюро Цензов США новой этнической категории — «американцы», имеющей четко выраженную пространственную локализацию, стало важным индикатором скорости и направленности ассимиляционных процессов этнических групп населения США европейского происхождения.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the location of the main ethnic groups of European origin in the United States. Being immigrants descendants, the US population has a different ethnic origin. To date, the majority of US residents are the descendants of European immigrants. On the example of the five most numerous ethnic groups of Americans of European origin — the British, Germans, Irish, French, Italians — the spatial changes of their distribution on the US territory in the period from 1980 to 2015 are considered. The ethnic assimilation processes of various ethnic groups in the American «melting pot» occur with different intensity. But the ethnic identity changing rate depends not only on a particular ethnic group membership, but also on the characteristics of its spatial localization. Among the five ethnic groups in question, over the past 35 years, the number of Americans of English and French origin has fallen most dramatically. The number of «Italians» over the same period has increased by more than 40 %. The appearance in 1990 in the US Census Bureau statistic data a new ethnic category — «Americans», which has a distinct spatial localization, has become an important indicator of the European ethnic groups assimilation process speed and direction in the United States.

The theory of Demographic Transition stipulates that the number of countries with the replacement and sub-replacement level of the total fertility rate is growing. In these conditions, population dynamics and the sex and age composition are increasingly affected by migration. The above holds true for Eastern European countries. Population decline has haunted Latvia for two and a half decades. Since 1990, the net migration rate has been negative, which contributes to depopulation. This study aims to reveal the effect of migration on the sex and age composition across Latvia and its largest cities. The authors consider hypothetical transformations in the country's age structure in 2000-2015 in the case of zero net migration. The study uses the cohort component methods and considers the actual age-specific mortality and birth rates. The analysis of the results obtained for the population of Latvia and its individual cities makes it possible to identify temporal and age/space features of migration. A comparison of the official data with net migration rates calculated for different age groups ensures a more accurate estimate of the actual volume and direction of migration flows for certain Latvian cities. The method for calculating net migration for the selected age groups, described in the article, may narrow the gaps in the current migration statistics and reveal the territorial inhomogeneity of demographic processes.

Socioeconomic development in cities and towns is a complex and multifactor phenomenon with various dimensions and evaluation criteria. One of the simplest and most available indicators of a situation in the economic and social sphere is population size dynamics. Using the towns of Leningrad oblast as an example, we analyzed how the 2014–2016 crisis events in the Russian economy affected the population dynamics. Starting from the 1980s, the towns of Leningrad oblast have been developing multidirectionally—in some towns, the population has decreased consistently, while in other towns it has increased; some towns have exhibited stagnation. These differences have been preserved so far, but the rate of increase and decrease in the population, largely driven by migration processes, vary significantly depending on changes in the country’s economy. As a result of the study, we found that the switch in the trend of demographic development amid rapid changes in the rate of economic increase is not peculiar to all towns. We studied different scenarios of the population dynamics in the towns of Leningrad oblast during 2011–2017, and we managed to distinguish several types of urban-type settlements. Based on an analysis of territorial features of the locations of towns, we have proposed an explanation for the differences in their persistence to crisis events in the Russian economy.

Реализация теории демографического перехода в глобальном масштабе приводит к тому, что количество стран с простым и суженным типом воспроизводства населения увеличивается с каждым десятилетием. В этих условиях на динамику численности населения и его половозрастную структуру всё большее влияние оказывает миграция населения. В наибольшей степени такая ситуация характерна сегодня для государств Восточной Европы и, в частности, для Латвии, уже два с половиной десятилетия имеющей естественную убыль населения. С 1990 года в стране наблюдается отрицательное сальдо внешней миграции, ускоряющее процесс депопуляции. Цель проведенного исследования — выявить влияние миграции на половозрастную структуру населения Латвии и ее наиболее крупных городов за период с 2000 года. Для этого рассматривался гипотетический сценарий трансформации возрастной структуры населения республики в 2000—2015 годах в условиях нулевой миграции. Использовался метод передвижки возрастов с учетом реальных возрастных коэффициентов смертности и рождаемости. Сравнение полученных результатов для всего населения Латвии и ее отдельных городов позволило выявить временные и пространственно-возрастные особенности миграционных процессов. Сравнение полученных в ходе расчетов значений сальдо миграции для различных возрастных групп с официальными данными дает возможность более точно оценить фактические объемы и направленность миграционных потоков для ряда городов Латвии. Разработанная и опробованная в данной статье методика расчета нетто-миграции для отдельных возрастных групп может восполнить пробелы текущего статистического учета миграционных событий и выявить территориальную неоднородность демографических процессов.

Cities form the backbone of human civilization, but only 600 of them become centers of world development. A special elite club consists of 183 world cities (according to Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) methodology), which represent the network substance of the globalized geoeconomic space. It is cities that lay down the global policy agenda, determine guidelines of economic management, and generate innovations and technological or consumer impulses. Intensive transformations take place in million-plus cities that affect the structure of the economy, urban space, and public realms. Most of these trends reflect processes that have affected most of the modern urbanized world. Study of the millionplus cities yields great opportunities for geographers. St. Petersburg, which is one of the world cities (gamma+), is experiencing a period of internal transformation within the paradigm change of economic development. Like other world cities, St. Petersburg has entered the postindustrial stage of development. This paper studies and interprets St. Petersburg’s main economic, territorial, and spatial transformation trends. In fact, the city is a testing ground for studying global urban trends in Russian practice. Particular attention is devoted to the remaining old post-Soviet features and the those of a new world city.

One of the key manifestations of globalisation is an increase in the spatial mobility of population involving growing numbers of people into international migration processes.This article is an attempt to assess the density of migration connections between European states based on the 1990-2015 quantitative data.An analysis of migration flows and relevant net migration and net migration and migration localisation at the national and regional levels makes it possible to identify key trends in the spatial and temporal transformation of this phenomenon on the European continent.Calculations suggest that an increase in migration has not narrowed the gap between countries of origin and destination countries but, on the contrary, it has made it more pronounced over the recent decades.The article presents an attempt at classifying European countries by the direction and intensity of migration connections and stresses the impact of international migration on the demographic and sociocultural situation in different European states.

In recent decades, the role of international migration has increased dramatically in most European countries. The growth in migration has made some authors proclaim the beginning of a second Migration Period that could transform the social and cultural identity of Europe. The article presents an analysis of international migration geography in Europe in the last twenty-five years. The authors identify the main trends in migration, provide migration profiles of European countries, and propose a classification based on the recent changes in the migrant stock. Changes in the migrant stock (total emigration and immigration) reflect the level of involvement in international and global processes. They can serve as an indicator of a country's attractiveness for both foreigners and the country's citizens. The study shows that European countries are increasingly split into 'immigrant' and 'emigrant' states. The authors describe spatial patterns of migration. The volume and localisation of migration flows in Europe are affected not only by cultural and historical circumstance, such as a colonial past or a common language. The scale of immigrant influx often does not depend on a donor country's demographic potential or the level of its socio-economic development. The links between the place of origin and destination are often more complex than it might initially seem. The authors stress the importance of a differentiated immigration policy taking into account ethnic and cultural features of host societies.

In recent decades, the ethnic structure of the population of St. Petersburg has significantly changed. As a result of assimilation, the number and share of some ethnic groups (Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars, Jews, etc.) in the city’s population have decreased significantly. At the same time, the inflow of migrants from outside Russia has led to a substantial increase in the number of ethnic groups of the South Caucasus and Central Asia. The paper shows the location in St. Petersburg of representatives of the ten most numerous (after ethnic Russians) ethnic communities. The analysis was performed in 108 municipalities of St. Petersburg according to the 2010 census. An indicator of the uneven territorial distribution is the coefficient of ethnic localization, developed by the authors, which is calculated as the deviation of the share of representatives of a particular ethnic group from the city average. The paper represents the differences in spatial preferences for choosing the place of residence of representatives of various ethnic groups; the correlation indices of allocation of the ethnic communities under study were calculated. The authors propose a typology of the municipalities of the city based on the settlement preferences of the most numerous ethnic communities.

Significant changes in the settlement pattern of the Russian ethnos occurred in the period between the population censuses of the Russian Federation in 1959 and 2010. In more than half of the regions (contemporary federal subjects), the share of Russians in the population changed by more than 5%: in 20 regions, decreased; in 23 regions, increased. The cause of such changes is first of all assimilation processes proceeding at different rates in the case of ethnic contacts between Russians and representatives of other ethnoses of the Russian Federation. Changes in the localization level of the most numerous ethnic groups during the last 50 years confirm the thesis on different directions and rates of ethnic processes. The level of passionarity and cultural and historical differences determine the character of the ethnic interaction between the Russians and other ethnic groups populating Russia. From Gumilev’s theory of ethnogenesis, we can draw a conclusion of a dependence between changes in the settlement of the Russian ethnos and the nature of ethnic contacts within the Russian Federation from the second half of the 20th century to the early 21st century.

At the end of the 20th century, the migration trend in Russia changed its direction: from centrifugal to centripetal. The geography of inflow and outflow did not experience any substantial changes, but the quantitative indices of net migration varied greatly. Since the second half of the 1990s, there has been both a gradual decline in the migration turnover and a shift of its net balance from a zero in all economic microregions. This paper analyzes the regional localization of migration processes across the country in 1990–2009. The country’s regions are grouped into those that lose and gain population, which is illustrated by maps. The net migration is considered across the economic regions and federal subjects. Our study allows us to make conclusion that the direction and intensity of migration processes can be considered an indicator of economic disparities across the regions.