Currently, a new approach to the concept of “inflammation” has been formed. Increasing evidence indicates that cellular and molecular mediators of inflammation are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including tissue remodeling, metabolism, thermogenesis, and nervous system function. Given the diversity of biological processes involving inflammatory signals and cells, the traditional view of inflammation as a response to infection or tissue damage is incomplete, since inflammation can occur in the absence of these triggers. The review examines the effects caused by myokines produced during physical activity. It can be argued that these proteins are involved in ensuring adaptive changes, pro- and anti-inflammatory reactions to maintain homeostasis, and their overall effect can be characterized as physiological inflammation. At the same time, the mechanisms of transcription activation of many myokines differ significantly from similar mechanisms in cells of the immune system. This suggests that myokines can be considered as factors of physiological inflammation, which is not a pathological process, but ensures normal physiological reactions during physical activity. A hypothesis has been formulated about the role of myokines as factors stimulating the development of physiological inflammation. The effects caused by myokines produced during physical activity are involved in ensuring adaptive changes, anti-inflammatory reactions and maintaining homeostasis. Physiological inflammation can be considered as, in some way, an antagonist of pathological inflammation; it is due to this antagonism that many positive effects of physical activity, including metabolic disorders, can be realized.

Aim. To study the effect of forced treadmill exercise on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism parameters in liver and skeletal muscle tissues of mice with a model of type 2 diabetes mellitus, taking into account age and biological rhythm characteristics.Materials and methods. To create a model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a high-fat diet was used. Physical activity in the form of forced treadmill exercise was carried out for 4 weeks. Parameters of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism in muscle and liver tissues were determined by Western blotting.Results. A decrease in glycogen content in the muscles in T2DM was associated with activation of its breakdown rather than with its reduced synthesis. Significant and multidirectional changes were recorded in the content of glycogen phosphorylase in the liver and skeletal muscle tissues. These changes were significantly influenced by both the nature of diet and physical activity. The development of T2DM in mice was accompanied by a decrease in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) content in the liver along with an increase in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels. It is worth noting that physical activity provided partial normalization of the ratio of lipid fractions, despite the fact that the exercises were performed in the context of a high-fat diet. In the T2DM group, metabolic changes caused by both T2DM modeling and physical exercises were not only quantitative, but in some cases also qualitative. The effects of physical exercises performed at different times of the day on metabolic processes in the liver and muscle tissues varied significantly.Conclusion. Physical activity can help prevent not only metabolic disorders (obesity and insulin resistance), but also associated complications on the part of the liver and cardiovascular system.

Aim. To study the effect of forced exercises on the content and parameters of oxidative phosphorylation in brown adipose tissue of mice with type II diabetes mellitus.Materials and methods. To model the disease, we used a high-fat diet and physical exercises in the form of forced treadmill running for 4 weeks. The content of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes in brown adipose tissue was determined by Western blotting.Results. Modeling diabetes in experimental animals was accompanied by expansion of adipose tissue. However, in brown adipose tissue, the content of all oxidative phosphorylation components decreases. Apparently, during type II diabetes mellitus modeling in mice, there is a decrease in the “energy efficiency” in brown adipose tissue, which is partially offset by an increase in its content in the body. Regular physical activity in mice with type II diabetes mellitus, in contrast to healthy animals, contributes to a decrease in the content of brown adipose tissue. At the same time, the content of most oxidative phosphorylation components in brown adipose tissue increases, in some casesб it even exceeds the baseline values. The latter is typical of a variable load mode – when the execution time of exercises periodically changes.Conclusion. The obtained results suggest that metabolic rearrangements in brown adipose tissue may serve as some of the mechanisms of preventive and projective effects of physical activity in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

The effect of forced running for 1 hour daily for 4 weeks on the content of Na + /K + -ATPase isoforms and monovalent cations in the skeletal muscles of mice with a model of type II diabetes mellitus (DM-II) was studied. To form a model of the disease, a high-fat diet was used, and physical activity in the form of forced running was carried out for 4 weeks. The content of Na + /K + -ATPase isoforms and Na + and K + ions in muscle tissue of m.gastrocnemius was determined by Western blotting and atomic absorption spectrophotomery, respectively. It has been shown that the formation of DM-II in mice is accompanied by changes in the content of Na + /K + -ATPase alpha 1 and 2 isoforms in muscle tissue. The effect of forced running loads on the content of Na + /K + -ATPase in muscle tissue is significant and primarily differs in age groups. One can also note a certain dependence of the influence of forced running loads on the content of this enzyme on the time of their use. In young animals, changes in the concentrations of monovalent sodium and potassium cations after forced running loads were less pronounced. In aged mice, against the background of forced loads, an increase in the content of sodium and decrease in the content of potassium in muscle tissue was observed. The detected changes in monovalent cations content in the muscle tissue of mice with diabetes mellitus II under the influence of forced running loads may play a role in the implementation of the metabolic effects of physical activity.

Aim. This paper aims at evaluating the effect of physical activity on energy metabolism in the skeletal muscles of untrained and trained experimental mice. Materials and methods. Mature (8-12 weeks) male C57Bl/6 mice weighing 25-30 g were used as experimental animals. Groups for acute (untrained mice) and chronic (trained mice) experiments were formed for the study. We used a dynamic exercise in the form of forced floating and a static exercise in the form of hanging on a horizontal grid. The content of lactate and glycogen in skeletal muscles was determined by the colorimetric method. The de-termination of citrate synthase, total OXPHOS, and the concentration of the Na+/K+-ATPase alpha 2 isoform in muscle tissue was performed by Western blotting. Results. It is shown that dynamic and static exercises have different effects on energy metabolism in the muscles of untrained and trained experimental animals. If the effects of a single exercise of a static or dynamic nature differed not so significantly, then those of daily training activities differed significantly. Static training led to significantly more pronounced changes in the energy metabolism of muscle cells. At the same time, the effect of a single static exercise on energy metabolism in trained animals was less pronounced than that of a dynamic one. Conclusion. Modification of these mechanisms under the influence of physical activities of various nature and intensity is of considerable interest as a promising way to affect metabolic processes both at the cellular and systemic levels, which is very important for both improving sports performance and correcting metabolic disorders associated with a number of socially significant diseases.

Numerous studies of physical and cognitive activities are of great theoretical and practical interest in understanding the relationship between these processes. In the presented review, we tried to analyze and structure the cause-and-effect relationships of the influence of physical activity on cognitive functions, as well as to consider the main mechanisms of such influence (including at the molecular level). In particular, the vaso- and neuroprotective effects of exercise are described, and three hypotheses explaining them are discussed. The endocrine function of muscles is considered in detail based on the example of several myokines. A discussion of physical activity to restore cognitive functions in fatigue, as well to prevent and correct cognitive disorders is presented.

Aim . To assess the effect of a single physical activity on the concentration of endothelial NO-synthase and plateletactivating factor in blood plasma of athletes training in cyclic and strength sports, as well as in untrained volunteers. Materials and methods . The study involved 28 men aged 18–25 years, who were relatively healthy and had no disorders of the cardiovascular system. Three groups were formed according to the sports classification. Group 1 (TFG): highly qualified athletes (Candidates for Master of Sports (CMS), Master of Sports (MS)) of cyclic sports – track and field athletics (middle-distance running, 800–1500 m), n = 10. Group 2 (WG): highly qualified athletes (CMS, MS) of strength sports – weightlifting, n = 8. Group 3 (CG): control group – untrained men with no sports category, n = 10. All volunteers were examined in the morning on an empty stomach. One day before the study, the athletes were advised to stop the training process. The blood from cubital vein was taken from all the subjects three times: before exercise (test A), immediately after performing the standard PWC 170 test on a bicycle ergometer (test B), and 60 minutes after performing the stress test (test C). Determination of the concentration of endothelial NO-synthase (eNOS) and platelet-activating factor (PAF) in plasma was performed by enzyme immunoassay. Results . It has been shown that the features of endothelial reactivity in athletes of various specializations in comparison with untrained volunteers are significantly associated with the level of eNOS production both at rest and in response to short-term physical exertion. Platelet-activating factor can also affect endothelial reactivity, but to a lesser extent, and is involved only in the mechanisms of adaptation to repetitive high-intensity physical loads.

Aim . To assess the effect of a single physical activity on the concentration of endothelial NO-synthase and plateletactivating factor in blood plasma of athletes training in cyclic and strength sports, as well as in untrained volunteers. Materials and methods . The study involved 28 men aged 18–25 years, who were relatively healthy and had no disorders of the cardiovascular system. Three groups were formed according to the sports classification. Group 1 (TFG): highly qualified athletes (Candidates for Master of Sports (CMS), Master of Sports (MS)) of cyclic sports – track and field athletics (middle-distance running, 800–1500 m), n = 10. Group 2 (WG): highly qualified athletes (CMS, MS) of strength sports – weightlifting, n = 8. Group 3 (CG): control group – untrained men with no sports category, n = 10. All volunteers were examined in the morning on an empty stomach. One day before the study, the athletes were advised to stop the training process. The blood from cubital vein was taken from all the subjects three times: before exercise (test A), immediately after performing the standard PWC 170 test on a bicycle ergometer (test B), and 60 minutes after performing the stress test (test C). Determination of the concentration of endothelial NO-synthase (eNOS) and platelet-activating factor (PAF) in plasma was performed by enzyme immunoassay. Results . It has been shown that the features of endothelial reactivity in athletes of various specializations in comparison with untrained volunteers are significantly associated with the level of eNOS production both at rest and in response to short-term physical exertion. Platelet-activating factor can also affect endothelial reactivity, but to a lesser extent, and is involved only in the mechanisms of adaptation to repetitive high-intensity physical loads.

The effect of forced treadmill running on the level of some cytokines in skeletal muscles of mice with a model of type II diabetes mellitus was studied. The mouse model was developed using a 12-week high-fat diet; physical loading in the form of forced treadmill running was applied for 4 weeks. The concentration of myokines in m. gastrocnemius was determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Diabetes formation in mice was accompanied by changes in the skeletal muscle concentration of two pro-inflammatory cytokines: an increase in IL-6 and a decrease in IL-15. Forced treadmill running loads had differential effects on the level of myokines in healthy and sick mice. In healthy animals, there was a decrease in IL-6 and IL-15 concentrations and an increase in the leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) concentration in skeletal muscles after 4 weeks of regular forced running. At the same time, in diabetic mice, IL-6 and IL-15 concentrations increased, while the LIF concentration decreased after forced running loads. The NAP3 concentration in skeletal muscles was found to be insensitive to both the development of type II diabetes mellitus and regular forced treadmill running.

The effect of treadmill running exercise training on the content of some cytokines in the skeletal muscles of mice with a model of type II diabetes mellitus was studied. To develop a model of the disease, a high fat feeding for 12 weeks was used, physical activity in the form of forced running was carried out for 4 weeks. The concentration of myokines in the muscle tissue of m. gastrocnemius was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The development of diabetes in mice is accompanied by an increase in the concentration of inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and a decrease in the concentration of IL-15 in skeletal muscle tissue. 4 weeks treadmill running exercise training has a different effect on the content of myokines in healthy and sick mice. In healthy animals, there was a decrease in IL-6 and IL-15 concentration and an increase in LIF concentration in skeletal muscle tissue after 4 weeks of regular forced running. At the same time, in diabetic mice, the concentrations of IL-6 and IL-15 increased after exercise, while LIF, on the contrary, decreased. The concentration of NAP3 in the skeletal muscle tissue of mice was insensitive to either the formation of diabetes mellitus II or to regular treadmill running exercise training.

The effect of training status on post-exercise flow-mediated dilation (FMD) is not well characterized. We tested the hypothesis that the more trained the subjects, the lower the reduction in FMD after an acute bout of aerobic exercise. Forty-seven men (mean ± SD, age: 20.1 ± 1.2 years, body mass: 75.5 ± 5.1 kg, height 178.1 ± 5.4 cm) were divided into five groups with different training characteristics (sedentary, two different groups of active subjects, two different groups of well-trained subjects - runners and weightlifters). Brachial artery FMD (blood pressure cuff placed around the arm distal to the probe with the proximal border adjacent to the medial epicondyle; 5 min at a pressure of 220 mmHg) was assessed before and during 3 min immediately after a bout of cycling exercise at a relative intensity of 170 bpm [(physical work capacity (PWC170)]. At baseline, a progressive increase in FMD was observed in the participants with the higher training status, if the training remained moderate. Indeed, FMD was reduced in runners and weightlifters compared to those who were moderately trained. After PWC170, FMD did not significantly change in sedentary and highly trained runners, significantly increased in the two groups of active subjects but significantly decreased in highly trained weightlifters. These results showed that endothelium-dependent vasodilation evaluated using brachial FMD is maintained or improved following acute aerobic exercise in moderately trained participants, but not in well-trained participants, especially if they are engaged in resistance training.

An experimental model of the obesity and type II diabetes mellitus formation in C57BL/6 mice using a high fat diet was developed and tested. In the study, it was shown that mice feeding high-fat diet had a significant body weight gain during the 3rd week. By the end of the experiment, body weight has more than doubled. In mice that feed chow diet, body weight increased by 50%, by the end of the experiment It was shown that high fat diet also induced glucose tolerance, and the insulin concentration tripled. The data obtained confirm the adequacy of the experimental model of diabetes mellitus type II in mice.

This work was aimed at studying the effects of physical exercise on brain electrical activity, cerebral blood flow, and cognitive function in athletes engaged in cyclic and acyclic sports. The study was performed on healthy young men at ages of 18 to 23 years. We used cognitive tests, electroencephalography, and rheoencephalography. Cerebral hemodynamics was shown to change after dynamic and static loading. The changes in blood flow after static loading were more marked than after dynamic loading. The results suggest that static loads cause a decrease in the activity of the EEG β- and θ-rhythms in the cognitive testing. It has been shown that cyclic loads have a positive effect on cognitive functions, while no such effects are observed after static loadings.

It is shown that strength-training athletes and track and field athletes have endothelial dysfunction. The vascular endothelium activity is not related to the direction of physical exercises. At the same time, the dynamic physical exercise induces endothelium vasodilatation function in all groups. Apparently, it can be the adaptive response to regular high-intensity physical exercises. At the same time it is a risk factor for acute vascular disorders.

It is shown that strength-training athletes and track and field athletes have endothelial dysfunction. The vascular endothelium activity is not related to the direction of physical exercises. At the same time, the dynamic physical exercise induces endothelium vasodilatation function in all groups. Apparently, it can be the adaptive response to regular high-intensity physical exercises. At the same time it is a risk factor for acute vascular disorders.

We measured the concentrations of IL-6 and IL-15 in blood plasma of mice at different terms after forced swimming, taking into account exercise intensity and preliminary training. It was shown that training was an important factor affecting blood plasma level of IL both at rest and after single forced swimming: in trained animals, the concentration of both myokines increased immediately after swimming, while in untrained animals, this increase was observed only after 5 h. Changes in cytokine production against the background of training can be associated with various factors, including neuroendocrine mechanisms, stress, modification of intracellular signaling, as well as reorganization of transcriptional mechanisms in muscle fibers. The most important factor is shift in the ratio of monovalent cations (sodium and potassium) in the cytoplasm.