The Salawusu River basin preserves an important record of Late Pleistocene hominin presence, crucial for understanding early human survival and migration in the semi-arid regions of East Asia. At the Shaojiagouwan site, located within this basin, abundant mammalian fossils and stone tools have been discovered. We conducted optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, together with sediment grain size and pollen analyses, to establish a chronological framework and reconstruct the paleoenvironmental context. The sedimentary sequence is characterized by fluvial deposits, with OSL ages constraining the site's occupation to between 62.2 and 49.3 ka, spanning Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4 and 3. Evidence of hominin presence, however, is confined to 63.1-57.3 ka and can be divided into two phases. Pollen data indicate that the regional vegetation was predominantly arid steppe, reflecting a generally cold and dry climate, although conditions during early MIS 3 were relatively warmer and wetter than during MIS 4. Within this framework, three millennial-scale warm and humid phases are identified at approximately 62-61 ka, 57.5-56.5 ka, and 54-53 ka, separated by longer intervals of arid and cold climate. Our findings suggest that early humans inhabited this semi-arid region during these relatively favorable climatic optima, and may have dispersed from the area during colder and more arid intervals. The Shaojiagouwan site thus demonstrates that early humans were capable of occupying semi-arid landscapes even during the cold MIS 4 period. There may have been climate fluctuations on a millennial timescale, which have had a significant impact on human presence in the region.

It remains unclear how hunter-gatherers used plant resources to adapt to climate change during the LGM in southern China. In this study, new pollen and archaeobotanical results from Weijia Cave were used to analyse vegetation-climate change and plant exploitation of hunter-gatherers, then fossil pollen dataset and archaeological data from across China were used to evaluate the potential of nuts in the adaptation of hunter-gatherers to climate change during the LGM. Pollen analysis results show that vegetation around Weijia Cave was dominated by coniferous trees and the climate was quite cold during ca. 30000–19500 cal yr BP; the reduction of coniferous trees and the increase of broad-leaved trees suggested a warm trend in climate during ca. 19500–12500 cal yr BP. The hunter-gatherers at Weijia Cave adopted a plant exploitation strategy of diversified resource utilization centred on fat-rich nuts at the end of MIS 3, then transitioned to intensified tannin-rich acorn exploitation during the LGM to cope with the severe climate conditions. The sustained high-coverage of nut trees in southern China provided the hunter-gatherers with a low-cost adaptive strategy to address winter food shortages through prioritized nut exploitation during the LGM.

Historical narratives hold that sericulture originated in China and spread along the Silk Road roughly two millennia ago. In questioning this assumption, we conducted micromorphological and proteomics analyses on three cocoons recovered from the Sapalli Tepe (approximately 2000 to 1500 BCE) site in Uzbekistan. We identified them as Bombyx mori, directly dated to 1940 to 1765 cal. BCE, representing the earliest remains of Bombyx cocoons. We further report the earliest mulberry (Morus sp.) charcoal fragments from Central Asia, attesting to mulberry-Bombyx sericulture in the Oxus nearly 2000 years earlier than previously documented. We highlight that early silkworms and mulberry trees may have been introduced to Central Asia along the southern slope of the Himalayas, although other routes could also plausibly explain the observed pattern. This multidisciplinary research rewrites the enigmatic history of early sericulture and its globalization.

Growing fossil and genomic evidence has substantially advanced our understanding of Denisovans' evolutionary history1-9, yet their technological behaviours and subsistence strategies remain poorly documented. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of hominin fossils and associated archaeological remains from Bianfu Cave, Yunnan Province, southwestern China. The hominin fossils are dated to about 167-134 thousand years ago (ka), whereas the cultural sequence spanned from about 190 ka to 70 ka, representing one of the longest cultural records most parsimoniously attributed to Denisovans-identified through enamel-dentine junction morphology and palaeoproteomic analyses10. The new fossils include four teeth that expand the known dental variation of this group, two cranial fragments and a radius. Faunal and pollen records indicate a conifer-dominated forest or forest-steppe environment across Marine Isotope Stages 6 to 4. The inhabitants of Bianfu Cave practised specialized hunting of medium- to large-bodied prey and used a technological strategy characterized by expedient core reduction and tool production, alongside pervasive use of unmodified bones. This pattern suggests an adaptive system prioritizing the exploitation of object affordance over intensive tool manufacture. Bianfu Cave provides unprecedented insights into Denisovan biology, behaviour and ecology in eastern Asia and points to a substantial genetic and cultural legacy in later populations in Southeast Asia and Oceania.

The gathering and use of ochre is a common behavior documented among Late Pleistocene human populations across the globe. Yet ochre use in the Paleolithic archaeological record of China remains poorly understood. Here we report on 36 pieces of ochre and 21 lithic artifacts with ochre residues from the archaeological deposits in Fodongdi Cave, Yunnan Province. These ochre finds, recovered from a succession of well-dated stratigraphic layers, offer an opportunity to discuss ochre use during the terminal Pleistocene in southwest China between 18,400 and 14,000 cal BP. We characterized the ochre assemblage using a combination of optical microscopy, thin section analysis, portable X-ray fluorescence, laser-induced breakdown and Raman spectrographic techniques, alongside scanning electron microscopy (with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy). Results indicate at least three petrographic and chemically distinct groups of locally available ochre were used (presumably as red pigments). The ochre assemblage contains 27 pieces with clear anthropogenic modification including microstriations within grooves, parallel striations with polish, as well as smoothed areas with microstriations and luster. Use-wear traces and ochre residues on processing tools indicates that ochre was ground on grindstones and rubbed on soft materials, with quartzite pebbles used to process ochre before the pebbles were themselves flaked (used for tool stone). The Fodongdi Cave study provides novel information for southern China, suggesting the selection of local ochre sources, their processing directly onto grindstones and by rubbing against soft surfaces such as hide or human skin at the site, and the collection and use of different proportions of (local) ochres during the terminal Pleistocene.

Using organic carbon isotope (S13CTOC) and total organic carbon (TOC) records from Core G3, Tianjin, together with published pollen records, we reconstruct vegetation evolution on the North China Plain over the past 2.0 Ma and examine its relationship with long-term orbital variability. Positive excursions in S13CTOC, reflecting changes in vegetation and organic-matter sources, broadly coincide with long-eccentricity minima, reduced global mean surface temperature (ZGMST), and lower atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Spectral analyses reveal a relatively persistent 405-kyr cycle in the G3 S13CTOC record, suggesting that long-eccentricity pacing may have contributed to orbital-scale vegetation variability over the past 2.0 Ma. Pollen records further suggest that vegetation patterns may reflect the combined influence of regional hydroclimatic variability and global orbital-scale climate change. Long-eccentricity variability may have indirectly influenced vegetation dynamics through temperature changes and climate-carbon cycle feedbacks, suggesting a possible link between orbital-scale climate change and longterm ecosystem evolution in East Asia.

The eastern coastal zone of China plays a pivotal role in both terrestrial-marine ecosystem interactions and human subsistence in East Asia. During the deglaciation period from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, similar to 21ka BP) to the early Holocene, rapid sea-level rise significantly influenced coastal and shelf ecosystems. However, the vegetation ecological landscape across the exposed shelf during this transgression remains poorly constrained. In this study, we integrate pollen and sedimentary records from representative marine and terrestrial cores collected in the eastern coastal zone of China and apply the biomization method to reconstruct vegetation patterns during key periods (LGM, 15 ka BP, 12 ka BP, and 10 ka BP) from the LGM to the early Holocene. Additionally, we examine the potential mechanisms underlying vegetation shifts in the coastal zone. Our results show that during the LGM, the exposed Bohai and Yellow Sea shelf were primarily covered by steppe and meadow dominated by Artemisia and Chenopodioideae (Amaranthaceae), while the East China Sea shelf supported forest steppe to deciduous broadleaved forest. During the Last Deglaciation, the warmer climatic condition and rising sea level triggered a shift from terrestrial to marine deposition, driving a northward vegetation migration and the replacement of steppe by forest. Concurrently, sea-level fluctuation promoted the development of azonal vegetation in coastal zone. By the early Holocene, vegetation diversity increased, with steppe and meadow re-expanding along the Bohai and Yellow Sea coast, while the East China Sea coast became dominated by mixed deciduous-evergreen broadleaved forest. Our findings offer a scientific framework for predicting coastal ecosystem responses to future warming and illuminate the ecological context of human activities during periods of shelf exposure.

Since the Holocene, marked transformations have occurred in patterns of human activity and modes of subsistence, with agriculture progressively becoming the principal means by which human societies modified and adapted to natural environments and sustained social development. The North China Plain (NCP) serves as the core region for the origin of millet agriculture in northern China and remains a pivotal area for understanding the genesis and evolution of Chinese civilization. By analyzing plant macrofossils from three sites—Zhujia, Dalaidian, and Wangzhuang—in the Qihe River basin (QRB), and integrating with crop assemblages from 54 representative sites across the North China Plain, this study systematically examines the synchrony between the evolution of Neolithic agricultural structures and climatic change in the region. The results demonstrate that multiple drought events had varying impacts on millet and rice agricultural systems in the NCP throughout the Neolithic period. Early communities responded to abrupt climatic perturbations by strategically adjusting agricultural structures to secure stable food supplies, thereby ensuring the sustained development of their societies. Furthermore, confronted with recurrent Neolithic drought events, prehistoric communities adopted diverse adaptive strategies, with their adaptive capacity progressively strengthening over time.

Perennial woody crops play crucial roles in global food security and food system diversification, yet they have long been overlooked in archaeobotanical research, constraining our understanding of their domestication trajectories, dispersal pathways, and the social-ecological conditions underlying these processes. The peach (Prunus persica), with its abundant archaeobotanical record and established genomic resources, provides an ideal model to address this challenge. Here, we conduct an integrated analysis of similar to 1,000 well-preserved endocarps from the Jingtoushan site (8.0-7.7 ka BP) in the Lower Yangtze, combining ecological and paleoenvironmental approaches to demonstrate early utilization within its suitable range. Variations in endocarp morphology and abundance correlate with environmental changes and subsistence shifts, suggesting that ecological suitability and human strategies shape the early peach use as a seasonal nutritional supplement. Coefficients of variation in peach endocarp metrics suggest incipient management as early as 8000 years ago. A synthesis of multidisciplinary evidence reconciles competing genetic and archaeological perspectives on peach origin, thus establishing a domestication process that includes a prolonged pre-domestication management phase. These findings provide one of the oldest and most continuous pre-domestication utilities of perennial crops, enabling insights into human-environment interactions shaping early crop management and domestication. They also provide an interdisciplinary perspective on agricultural origins and germplasm resource conservation for future investigations.

Late Pleistocene lithic miniaturization, particularly the emergence, development and spread of microblade technology in East and Northeast Asia, has received substantial attention. Here we present a comprehensive study of the Xishantou site in Northeast China, dated to 28.3-27.4 cal ka BP. The lithic assemblage is characterized by intensive exploitation of local tuff and rhyolite and the coexistence of diversified technical systems, including core-flake and laminar reduction strategies (i.e. blade, bladelet and microblade removals). Microblades and bladelets of the site were primarily detached from burin-cores by soft-stone-hammer percussion and formed an independent reduction sequence distinct from blade reduction. Therefore, the Xishantou site provides unequivocal evidence for the appearance of microblade technology in Northeast China at the onset of Marine Isotope Stage 2 (MIS 2). This abrupt technological shift within the long-standing core-flake tradition of Northeast China may be closely linked to the eastward migration and dispersal of northern Eurasian populations, coupled with climate and environmental deterioration during the transition from MIS 3 to MIS 2. Subsequently, southward migration of populations equipped with microblade technologies to more hospitable regions was recorded in several sites during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), for example, at the site of Helong Dadong in the Changbaishan Mountains. These findings provide critical new insights into the emergence and development of microblade technology in Northeast China. They also shed light on the population dynamics and their adaptive strategies in response to fluctuating climate and environment during the Late Pleistocene.

The Fergana Valley has been a crucial passage for cultural exchange since the Middle Holocene. Despite numerous archaeological discoveries, research on the subsistence patterns of its populations remains limited. In this study, carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis was applied to human skeletal remains from the Iron Age Khanabad-1 cemetery in the eastern Fergana Valley. This provides the first small subset reconstruction of dietary patterns for the local population around 2000 BP. The preliminary results indicate an average delta 13C value of -17.9%o, confirming a C3 dominated mixed plant intake. The average delta 15N value of 10.0%o is approximately 3.0%o higher than that of contemporaneous livestock in the surrounding area, suggesting a modest level of animal protein consumption. Considering the local environment of the Khanabad-1 cemetery and the artifacts recovered from the graves, we infer that agriculture formed the important part in the local population subsistence system. The diet was mainly composed of C3 plants, supplemented by C4 plants and animal resources. This dietary structure represents a transitional pattern between the mountain agropastoral populations and the oasis agricultural populations during the Bronze to Iron Age in the region. Notably, it closely resembles the isotopic records of the medieval agricultural populations in the Fergana Valley. This similarity may demonstrate both the connections between local agricultural groups, the agropastoral populations of the IAMC, and the oasis agricultural societies, as well as the continuity of local dietary traditions over time.

Scholars are increasingly favoring models for the origins of agriculture that involve a protracted process of increasing interdependence within a series of mutualistic relationships between humans and plants, as opposed to a rapid single event or innovation. Nonetheless, these scholars continue to debate over when people first started foraging for grass seeds, when they began to readily utilize sickles, how prominent the early selection pressures were, and when the first traits of domestication fully introgressed into the cultivated grass population. Here, we present complementary archaeobotanical and archaeological (stone tool) evidence for cereal foragers from Toda-1 Cave in the Surkhan Darya, dating to 9200 cal BP. We conclude that early Holocene foragers were processing grains along with nuts and fruits as far north as the rich river valleys of southern Uzbekistan. These data expand the known range that preagricultural cereal foragers covered in the early Holocene, adding to our understanding of the cultural processes that led to farming. Additionally, we present the earliest evidence for people interacting with the progenitors for pistachios and apples (or a close apple relative). The complex foraging behaviors that led to cultivation were being undertaken by people during the early Holocene across a wider area of Eurasia than previously thought.

The Central Asian (CA) steppe ecosystem and its fauna experienced a marked transition during the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO), though the specific process and dynamics remain elusive. We selected the Duolebulejin (DLB) section within the Junggar Basin to reconstruct vegetation and climate changes, using proxies such as particle size, mammalian fossils, and previously reported data including pollen, delta 13CTOC, and magnetic susceptibility. The results reveal three distinct phases of transformation in regional vegetation and fauna from 18.8 to 13.2 Ma. During the pre-MCO (18.8-17.0 Ma), the landscape was dominated by desert scrubland, primarily inhabited by rodents. The MCO (17.0-14.5 Ma) witnessed a shift towards steppe vegetation, initially with herbaceous taxa followed by the establishment of C4 plants, alongside a diversity of large mammals adapted to open habitats. This suggests the emergence of savanna-like woodland steppes. In the post-MCO (14.5-13.2 Ma), the region transitioned to a dry steppe, accompanied by a decline in animal populations, although a significant proportion of species remained adapted to steppe environments. These findings underscore a co-evolutionary relationship between the development of steppe ecosystems and mammalian adaptations, driven by global MCO warming and subsequent cooling, with regional hydroclimatic changes acting as a modulating factor. The steppe-fauna biome emerged in the Junggar Basin during the MCO warming, with mechanisms resembling those of tropical savannas in the late Miocene. These insights enhance our understanding of early steppe ecosystem evolution through past warming periods, shedding light on the pathways to modern steppe formation.

As a key conduit for trans-Eurasian cultural exchange, the Hexi Corridor exhibits rich archaeological evidence of crops and animals from both East and West Asia. While pastoralism likely facilitated these interactions, its historical development and relationship with environmental changes remain unclear. This study reconstructs the history of pastoral activities in the Hexi Corridor since the Holocene through fungal spore analysis of a natural profile and two site sections, with relevant archaeological evidence. According to the fungal spore records from the TH section, the herbivore activity in the Hexi Corridor can be divided into four stages: 11,178-8,000 cal BP, the climate was humid and herbivorous animals were active; 8,000-4,000 cal BP, the climate became drier and the number of herbivorous animals decreased; 4,000-3,000 cal BP, the number of cattle and sheep increased and the spore levels rose; 3,000-1,220 cal BP, the grazing activities further intensified and the dung-related fungal spores reached their peak. Integrating zooarchaeological and fungal evidence reveals two major pastoral intensifications: 4,200-3,200 cal BP, linked to the introduction of cattle and sheep; 1,900-1,700 cal BP, associated with large-scale nomadic pastoralism. Pastoral development was initially favoured by humid conditions, but after 2,000 cal BP, climate became less influential on human activities.

The Late Cenozoic evolution of mammalian species is hypothesized to be intricately linked to profound climatic fluctuations. A key event was the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation from 2.68 Ma; however, the evolutionary phases of mammalian fauna are substantially longer than the 41 ka and 100 ka climatic cycles that characterized this interval and faunal change cannot be fully explained by specific climatic events, such as the Mid-Pleistocene Transition. In this paper, we report pollen records from the LN-1 core drilled in the North China Plain, to quantitatively reconstruct variations in paleotemperature and paleoprecipitation since the Late Pliocene. Results reveal a progressive and sustained trend toward cooler and drier climatic conditions since 2.68 Ma. Notably, pollen data reveal extreme aridity and cold emerged 130 ka and significant declines in vegetation productivity occurred at 1.3 Ma and 2.6 Ma. These three temporal markers coincide with shifts in mammalian faunal composition. These findings indicate that variations in terrestrial ecosystem productivity, together with climatic fluctuations, likely represent critical drivers influencing regional-scale changes in mammalian faunal assemblages.

The Late Pleistocene of Eurasia is key for understanding interactions between early modern humans and different types of archaic human groups. During this period, lithic technology shows more diversity and complexity, likely indicating flexible adaptative strategies. However, cultural variability as expressed by technological types remains vague in large parts of eastern Eurasia, like in China. Here, we report a complete Quina technological system identified from the study of the Longtan site in Southwest China. The site has been securely dated to ca. 60 to 50 thousand years ago (ka), with compelling evidence of core exploitation, production of large and thick flakes, shaping and maintenance of scrapers exhibiting the whole Quina concept, typical of contemporary European Middle Paleolithic technologies developed by Neanderthal groups adapted to climatic oscillations during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and early MIS 3. The finding of a Quina lithic assemblage in China not only demonstrates the existence of a Middle Paleolithic technology in the region but also shows large-scale analogies with Neanderthal behaviors in western Europe. Longtan substantially extends the geographic distribution of this technical behavior in East Asia. Although its origin remains unclear, implications for Pleistocene hominin dispersal and adaptation to diverse ecological settings are considered. The Longtan lithic evidence also provides perspectives for understanding the cultural evolutionary situation before the large-scale arrivals of early modern humans in East Asia predating ~45 ka.

The paleoenvironmental changes and adaptation strategies of hominins during the Late Pleistocene are crucial for understanding the evolution, dispersal, and behavioral shifts of early modern humans. Despite South China’s significance as a nexus for hominin dispersal and handaxe technology diffusion, quantitative reconstructions of paleoenvironments linked to archaeological records remain scarce. The Sandinggai site (96.6–13.3 ka BP) in central South China, with its well-preserved stratigraphy and abundant lithic artefacts, is notable for providing valuable insights. In this study, quantitative reconstruction of the vegetation succession and climate change sequences at the site was conducted using palynological and isotopic data. The results indicated a shift from a warm-temperate evergreen and deciduous broadleaf mixed forest to a temperate deciduous broadleaf forest, with the climate transitioning from warm and humid to cooler and drier conditions. During the early phase, an increase in lithic production suggested favorable conditions for hominin survival. In the later phase, decreased lithic production and the replacement of large handaxe tools by smaller flake tools, indicated that hominins adapted to the cooler, drier climate and more open landscapes through lithic miniaturization. These findings highlight the environment-driven adaptation of lithic technology and hominin behavior, thereby shedding light on human survival adaptation strategies.

The change in vegetation at the margins of the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) during the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO) remains poorly understood. Here, we present a high-resolution terrestrial sequence, paleomagnetically dated to 18.2-13.5 Ma, from the Tongxin Basin of midwestern China. Our multi-indicator analysis, encompassing pollen, delta 13CTOC, delta 18Ocarb-delta 13Ccarb, and magnetic susceptibility, reveals that the regional vegetation and climate had two distinct stages during the MCO, manifesting as stable arid steppe from 17.0 to 16.0 Ma, and woodland steppe with six forested environments from 16.0 to 14.0 Ma. Together with other adjacent records, this supports the EASM as the main control on terrestrial vegetation. Further comparisons of marine-terrestrial data and time series analysis suggest that in the late MCO, the oceanic carbon reservoir (OCR) experienced strong perturbations (mainly Cmax events) accompanied by multiple oscillations. The instability signals likely impacted and were amplified as rapid shifts in forest-steppe environments at the monsoon margins via EASM. Our study highlights the regulation of inland ecologically vulnerable areas by low-latitude forcing in a greenhouse world. Exploring the response of vegetation to the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO, similar to 17.0-14.0 Ma) can serve as an analogy for studies of ecological impacts under future global warming. Here, we perform magnetostratigraphic dating and past vegetation-climate reconstruction in high-resolution terrestrial sediments in the Tongxin Basin of Midwest China, a region sensitive to the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM). The records of several indicators, including pollen, delta 13CTOC, delta 18Ocarb-delta 13Ccarb and magnetic susceptibility, indicate that the regional climate and vegetation changed in two major stages across the warm MCO. Between 16.0 and 17.0 Ma, the regional vegetation was predominantly stable arid steppe, followed by at least six rapid oscillations between arid steppe and forest environments between 14.0 and 16.0 Ma. Further analyses show that EASM intensity dominates regional changes in vegetation, and its changing pattern is quasi-similar to global oceanic delta 13C changes reflecting the state of oceanic carbon reservoir (OCR). Multiple rapid shifts in the forest-steppe landscape during the late MCO are closely related to fluctuations in the EASM system, which are modulated by strong oscillations in the OCR. Our study reveals the non-negligible role of the low-latitude marine carbon cycle in forcing inland ecologically vulnerable areas during global climatic warming. The age of the Miocene Tongxin Fauna is constrained to 18.0-14.0 Ma by magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy The stability of the regional climate-vegetation system underwent a two-stage evolutionary pattern during the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO) Regional vegetation oscillations are likely to respond to ocean carbon reservoir perturbation in the late MCO