The coupled effects of socio-economic and natural complex factors, both in time and space, collectively shape diverse ecosystem patterns, with different ecosystems exhibiting differentiated expansion probabilities in space. However, existing spatial selection frameworks for ecological restoration give limited consideration to this. Taking Beijing as an example, this study integrated ecosystem services value (ESV) assessment and land use expansion probability simulation to propose a framework for determining re-naturalization pathways aimed at enhancing natural benefits, intended to guide spatial selection in ecological restoration practices. The results showed that, over the past 20 years, the expansion of construction land has primarily encroached upon cropland. At the same time, historical ecological restoration projects have contributed to the recovery of forest, shrub, and wetland areas by 2.70%, 73.86%, and 9.9%, respectively. Terrain factors (such as DEM and slope) significantly influence the spatial expansion probabilities of various ecosystems. The overall ESV of the city has decreased by 2.84% over the past 20 years, with wetlands exhibiting the highest average ESV of 83.47 CNY/m2. Furthermore, the ESV supply capacity of shrubland, grassland, and wetlands has significantly increased, while the ESV supply capacity of forests and construction land has declined. Based on the principle of enhancing average ESV and expansion probabilities, this study identified 18 re-naturalization pathways with significant spatial differences and highlights the spatially extreme importance regions for each pathway. This framework provided spatial decision support for ecological restoration that combines the ecosystem services enhancement with socio-economic-natural coupling mechanisms.

Global primary wood products support livelihoods and industry but threaten forest sustainability. Using data from 179 countries from 2000 to 2021, we quantify economic and trade contributions, map associated forest loss, and assess mitigation policies. Global production rose 15.2% from 3.46 to 3.99 billion m3. Cumulative production value reached $8.52 trillion. Their contribution to global gross domestic product declined from 0.74% to 0.47%. Over the study period, counterfactual modeling estimates primary wood product extraction corresponds to a cumulative net forest area loss of 869,298.68 km2 as a model-derived upper bound. Model-dependent policy simulations show forest certification and moderate wood price increases are linked to lower production-related forest loss in 174 countries, with heterogeneous effects by income group: stronger price effects in lower-income nations and greater certification efficacy in high-income countries. These results provide pathways to balance ecological costs with economic benefits for sustainable forest management.

Approximately 10-20% of adolescents in urban areas face mental health challenges, which has attracted widespread attention. Campus is the main place for students'activities, and while numerous studies have shown that the living environment can influence the emotions of residents, evidence specifically focusing on the campus environment remains limited. This study employed semantic segmentation of street-view imagery and electroencephalogram(EEG)-based emotion detection to quantify campus landscape elements and adolescents' real-time emotional states. Using linear mixed-effects, it examined the impact of three key visual Natural Landscape Structure-sky visibility, tree coverage, and impervious surface coverage-on adolescents' typical emotions (interest, excitement, and stress), and explored gender differences. The results indicated that an increase in the proportion of trees in the visual campus environment reduced adolescents' excitement levels, sky visibility had no significant effect on emotional changes, and impervious surfaces exhibited a slight emotion-stabilizing effect. In gender-specific analyses, the study found that females were more sensitive to environmental elements than males. These findings reveal the differential effects of various visual natural landscape structures on several typical emotions in adolescents, particularly highlighting significant gender differences, also provide optimization suggestions for the planning and design of campus landscapes.

In highly urbanized areas, rapid expansion of construction land often undermines ecological restoration benefits. Traditional ecological restoration frameworks struggle to meet the growing demand for ecosystem services (ES) during socio-economic development. Using Beijing as a case study, this research integrates socio-economic-natural complex ecosystem theory, spatial homogeneity theory, and restoration limitation hypothesis to propose a framework for simulating ecosystem service potential. This framework provides broader spatial options and quantitative reference targets for ecological restoration. The results showed that ecosystem service value (ESV) in Beijing has generally declined over the past 20 years, though it has increased annually by 1.46% in the last five years. Topographical factors significantly influence the spatial differentiation of ecosystem services across the city. When considering comprehensive ecological benefit restoration, the potential ESV for Beijing is estimated at 311821.57 million CNY, representing a 10.25% potential growth over current levels, with a recoverable area of 11446.20 km2. The value enhancement potential of individual ecosystem services ranges from 2.28% to 25.00%, with corresponding recoverable areas ranging from 981.69 km2 to 12693.01 km2. Forests and cropland play a significant role in restoring ecosystem service value potential. The mountain forests within the ecological conservation development zones and the wetlands across the city remain key areas for restoring ecosystem service value potential. This study enhances existing spatial identification approaches and provides quantitative reference targets for ecological restoration based on ecosystem service potential, supporting sustainable urban ecological planning.

Urban green spaces (UGS) are pivotal providers of ecosystem services, essential for fostering both physical and psychological well-being. However, rapid urbanization has intensified spatial inequities in UGS distribution. This study develops a multi-dimensional geospatial modeling framework to evaluate Beijing's greenspace accessibility by synthesizing population dynamics, topographic constraints, and vegetation quality. By quantifying Greenspace Usage Intensity (GUI) and the Greenspace Usage and Quality Index (GUQI), we analyze the intricate supply-demand dynamics across the metropolitan area through a dual-threshold path analysis (5000 m distance and 500 kcal energy expenditure). Key findings reveal that: (1) Accessibility Constraints: Of Beijing's total greenspace (1,075,485 ha), only 50% (538,346.3 ha) is practically accessible under the dual-threshold constraints, with ecological redlines and terrain barriers reducing nominal accessibility by 33.9%. (2) The Equity Paradox: Spatial equilibrium in greenspace coverage does not ensure functional equity. While the Gini coefficient for GUI is high (0.71), the integration of GUQI significantly reduces the Gini coefficient to 0.22, indicating a "quality-mediated equalization" where high-quality peripheral vegetation effectively compensates for usage frequency deficits. (3) Core-Periphery Disparities: High-density urban cores exhibit a persistent "Double-Low" deficit (low vegetation quality and low per-capita accessibility), whereas peri-urban transition zones demonstrate the most pronounced demand-supply mismatch. (4) Economic Valuation: Correlation analysis confirms that greenspace exclusivity in peri-urban areas drives significant rental price premiums (p < 0.05), highlighting the socioeconomic dimension of environmental justice in land-use planning. This refined modeling framework advances methodological standards for metropolitan greenspace allocation, providing an empirical basis for "quality-first" urban renewal and the realization of equitable, sustainable urban ecosystems.

China’s Sponge City Program (SCP), the world’s largest urban green spaces (UGSs) retrofitting initiative for mitigating waterlogging and pollution, holds underappreciated potential for reconstructing plant communities. Here, we demonstrate that across 1,973 sponge city green infrastructures (SCGIs) in Wuxi, the SCP significantly enhances plant diversity (increased plant coverage, species richness, evenness, and reduced dominance), synchronizing its distribution at a high level across the catchment. We find that biodiverse designs (e.g., rain gardens [RGs], bioswales [BSs]) alongside linear project implementation are key drivers and propose a strategic network approach to maximize gains by embedding SCGIs in UGS planning, leveraging linear projects as potential corridors and employing multifunctional designs. This work reconciles stormwater management with biodiversity conservation, supporting China’s commitment to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) Target 12 through improved UGS area, quality, and connectivity. These insights offer actionable pathways for subtropical/tropical Asian cities to enhance ecological resilience amidst rapid urbanization.

Fuelwood remains a major traditional energy source for more than 264 million households worldwide. However, its global impacts on sustainability are poorly quantified. Here, we develop an integrated framework combining energetic, economic, and environmental perspectives to evaluate the livelihood, economic, carbon emission, and biodiversity impacts of global fuelwood consumption from 2000 to 2021 and to project outcomes under alternative energy and management scenarios for 2030 and 2050. We find that global fuelwood consumption reached 1.9 billion m3 in 2021 (2.5% of primary energy use). The economic value was $190 billion, accounting for 0.2% of global GDP but up to 6.7% in low-income countries. Fuelwood use by all income levels together generated 1.1-1.7 Gt CO2 emissions and significantly undermined global biodiversity integrity. Counterfactual simulations show that substituting 90% of unsustainably harvested fuelwood with renewable energy could reduce global primary energy emissions by 3.2-4.4% and increase biodiversity integrity by 0.3%. By 2050, policy interventions would markedly improve carbon and biodiversity outcomes. Forest certification reduces emissions by up to 99.7, 98.4, and 74.0% in high-, upper-middle-, and lower-middle-income countries, respectively. In low-income countries, clean energy substitution reduces emissions by 61.3%, while LPG and clean energy scenarios increase biodiversity integrity by up to 65.6% and further improve outcomes in higher-income groups. These findings underscore the importance of systemic approaches that explicitly account for trade-offs and synergies among energy access, livelihoods, carbon mitigation, and biodiversity conservation in fuelwood management.

Urban habitat quality is a key indicator of ecosystem stability and biodiversity support. However, existing models often focus on a single dimension of urban ecological systems, limiting their ability to capture spatial heterogeneity in dense urban mosaics. This study develops an integrated assessment framework that combines the complementary strengths of the InVEST and IUEMS models through dual-factor joint classification and comprehensive dimensionality reduction, bridging external risk and intrinsic suitability. Applied to Shenzhen, the average habitat quality in 2020 was 0.71. High-quality habitats concentrate in ecological core and forested zones, whereas low-quality habitats cluster in densely built-up and fringe areas. Bird diversity surveys confirm the ecological validity of the results. By integrating external risk with intrinsic suitability, the framework enhances diagnostic precision and spatial discrimination of urban habitat quality assessments, providing actionable evidence for prioritizing restoration, optimizing ecological redlines, and delineating urban growth boundaries. The approach is generalizable to other high-density cities and supports evidence-based ecological spatial governance and biodiversity conservation.

Traditional ecological conditions indicators struggle to meet the demands of diverse ecosystem management. Ecosystem regulation services value (RSV) quantifies the monetized overall ecosystem benefits and conditions, having more intuitive and broader application prospects. However, the spatiotemporal fluctuations of actual meteorological conditions (AMC) significantly impact the objectivity and accuracy of RSV in characterizing ecosystem conditions. Sliding average meteorological conditions (SMC) often reduce the kurtosis of meteorological data, making them unsuitable for assessing ecosystem services to extreme meteorological conditions. This study used Beijing as a case study to propose the concept of comparable meteorological conditions (CMC) and determination method, then evaluated RSV from 2000 to 2020 under AMC, SMC, and CMC. Furthermore, this study compared RSV under different meteorological conditions with traditional ecological quantification indicator, Ecosystem Quality Index (EQI), and conducted spatiotemporal reliability verification using linear regression model (LR), geographically weighted regression model (GWR) and trend scoring methods. The results showed that the CMC for temperature, precipitation, evaporation, wind speed, and air humidity were 2004, 2020, 1994, 2009, and 2007, respectively. The spatial-temporal variation of CMC-based RSV exhibited smaller magnitude, better aligning with the stability of ecosystem. Spatial correlation between CMC-based RSV and EQI was significantly higher than that of AMC (LR: 1.51% to 5.44%; GWR: 0.90% to 1.39%) and SMC (LR: 1.64% to 5.40%; GWR: 0.97% to 1.34%). Temporal trend score between CMC-based RSV and EQI is 6.18% and 6.02% higher than under AMC and SMC, respectively. These results indicated that CMC provides a more scientific data basis for management-oriented RSV assessments.

Urban greening is increasingly promoted as a strategy for adapting cities to rising temperatures, yet its capacity to reduce heat risks and how those benefits are distributed across populations remain poorly understood. Here, we examine how alternative land-use pathways influence urban cooling and associated energy, productivity and health outcomes across London under future climate change. Combining climate projections with urban cooling and health impact models, we isolate the effects of land-use change from background warming and evaluate responses from neighborhood to city scales. We find that climate change substantially increases summer temperatures across London by mid-century, while alternative land-use pathways modify local heat exposure by up to ±1 °C under the same climate conditions. Scenarios that expand tree canopy consistently reduce cooling energy demand, improve labor productivity, and lower heat-related mortality, whereas the loss of urban greenery amplifies heat-related risks. However, these benefits are not distributed evenly. Neighborhoods with greater socioeconomic disadvantage experience smaller gains from conventional greening strategies. We further show that targeted greening strategies can substantially alter the distribution of adaptation benefits, directing larger health gains towards higher-risk communities. Our findings suggest that the effectiveness of urban greening depends not only on how much cities green, but also on where greening occurs. Incorporating equity considerations into urban greening targets and investment strategies may therefore be critical for achieving both climate resilience and social benefits.

Urban nature is increasingly suggested as a climate adaptation strategy, yet its capacity to reduce heat exposure and how those benefits are distributed across population remains poorly understood. Here, we examine how alternative land-use pathways shape urban cooling, and associated energy, productivity, and health outcomes across London under mid-century climate change. Combining climate projections with an urban cooling model and health impact assessment, we isolate the effects of land-use change from background warming and evaluate borough- and neighborhood-scale responses. We find that climate change substantially increases summer temperatures across London by 2050, while alternative land-use pathways modulate local heat exposure by up to ±1 °C under the same climate conditions. Scenarios that expand tree canopy consistently reduce cooling energy demand, improve labor productivity, and lower heat-related mortality, whereas the loss of urban greenery amplifies heat-related risks. However, these benefits are unevenly distributed. Neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic status exhibit smaller gains from uniformed greening strategies. Our findings demonstrate that urban nature can provide measurable adaptation benefits under future climate change, but that the magnitude and distribution of these benefits depend on how greening is planned and implemented. Integrating equity considerations into urban greening targets and investment strategies may therefore be critical for maximizing both climate resilience and social benefits.

This paper reviews the context and prospects for markedly improved sustainability of marine ecosystems and resources in China, based on accounting of marine ecosystem services and natural capital along with supporting policy and governance frameworks, in turn based on existing approaches in China's terrestrial social-ecological systems. Such integrated accounting, policy, and governance would provide a unique, novel, and innovative approach to regional-scale, sustainable ocean management. China is uniquely placed to implement such accountability, given the extensive adoption of accountability in terrestrial landscapes and the strong commitment to "ecological civilization" at the highest levels of national policy. Specifically, the paper outlines: The current, seriously degraded state of marine ecosystems and resources in China, largely due to economic drivers that ignore the valuable economic services provided by healthy marine ecosystems;The critical context of, and high-level commitment to, China's considerable development of environmental accounting, implementation and governance frameworks in terrestrial landscapes;Existing approaches for assessing marine natural capital in China, and the relationships between them;Currently available assessments;Current governance arrangements for marine ecosystem management in China.The paper then provides a potential implementation pathway for a system of standardised, nationally integrated, provincially-implemented marine environmental accounts, policy and governance, adapted from existing terrestrial arrangements. Such accounting, if embedded in rigorous governance and policy structures to drive real-world implementation, could generate a major improvement in sustainability of China's marine ecosystems. Given the extent of China's marine jurisdiction, and severity of ongoing degradation, such improvement could have enormous environmental and economic benefits within China, and at a global scale.

In the context of intensified global efforts for carbon neutrality, carbon emission efficiency has emerged as a pivotal aspect in emission reduction strategies. As a result, policymakers require finer-grained insights into the driving forces behind and pathways of carbon emission efficiency improvement. This study developed a methodology to quantify carbon emission efficiency, analyze dynamic changes, clarify the configuration of driving forces, and propose pathway improvements based on 189 cities in China. The results reveal that: (1) carbon emission efficiency exhibited fluctuating growth in China's cities, improving overall by 20.70% from 2010 to 2019. (2) The pattern of improvement changed in 2017, with urban development starting to benefit carbon emission efficiency instead of hindering it. This change was attributed to the shift from a negative to a positive relationship between urbanization and the carbon emission efficiency (CEE value): the higher the per capita GDP, the larger the population, and the higher the CEE value. (3) Dynamic analysis unveiled a southeastward shift in the spatial distribution of CEE values, with East China (value of 0.78) and South China (value of 0.74) being the two regions with the greatest CEE values. (4) Using the fsQCA approach, this study identified the complex mechanisms driving carbon emission efficiency improvement. It found that by combining urbanization, technological innovation, and industrial reorganization, carbon emission efficiency was practically and effectively enhanced. In conclusion, three efficiency improvement pathways were proposed. This study tells a positive story about carbon emission efficiency. The configuration analysis of trends and driving forces will help scientists and policy-makers balance urban development and carbon reduction so their cities can achieve carbon neutrality.

The regulating services provided by ecosystems are an important safeguard for regional ecological security,and are typical public service products characterized by non-excludability and non-rivalry.Compared with the material provisioning products and cultural service products of ecosystems,regulating services face significant shortcomings in market-based value realization and monetization capacity,making them difficult to trade and monetize.This study systematically introduces the experiences of Beijing and particularly Yanqing District and Mentougou District in overcoming bottlenecks and promoting the monetization and enhancement of regulating service products.In the area of value realization,major efforts have focused on policy preparation and the cultivation of policy-driven markets;in the area of value enhancement,work has mainly centered on expanding coverage,increasing quality,enhancing protection,optimizing land-use,and so on.In addition,to enhance the application and management efficiency of the value of regulating services,an integrated cloud platform for regulation services management has been adopted.

Global climate change-induced phenomena such as sea-level rise and coastal hazards increasingly threaten coastal communities. As a proactive strategy, integrating Nature-based Solutions (NbS) into urban planning is critical for enhancing climate resilience, yet existing frameworks lack spatial and ecosystem-based assessments tailored for new cities. This study develops a Comprehensive Coastal Vulnerability Index (CCVI) that integrates risk and resilience metrics and proposes an innovative spatial decay model to quantify inland vulnerability propagation under sea-level rise. Using Hong Kong’s planned Northern Metropolis Development (NMD) as a case study, we simulate vulnerability dynamics under the 2100 sea-level rise scenario (SSP4.5), urbanization scenario, and NbS habitat restoration scenario. Results reveal that sea-level rise increases coastal vulnerability by 20.73% compared to the 2021 baseline, while NbS habitat restoration reduces vulnerability by 6.01%. Notably, combining NbS with urbanization achieves a 7.52% reduction, demonstrating the efficacy of preemptive spatial planning. Spatial analysis identifies high-risk clusters in eastern NMD (e.g., Sha Tau Kok Bay), where natural habitat coverage is minimal. The CCVI framework advances coastal vulnerability assessments by embedding resilience metrics and spatial heterogeneity, offering actionable insights for policymakers to prioritize NbS in new city masterplans. This study underscores the imperative of coupling ecological restoration with infrastructure to achieve sustainable coastal development in rapidly urbanizing regions.

The interactions between human and natural systems and their effects have unforeseen results, particularly in the management of water resources. Using water stress mitigation as an example, a water resources management effect index (WRMEI) was created to quantitatively evaluate the trends of water management effects. This revealed that the WRMEI was decreasing due to the impact of the water resources management process. The findings demonstrate that water resources management has unintended effects: there was a gap between the expectation of water stress to be mitigated and the actual results of water stress increasing. That is caused by human activities in water utilization: (1) increasing available water resources from water transfer was not utilized sparingly in the receiving cities-increased water transfers from external sources increase domestic water consumption per capita; (2) improving water efficiency has a positive effect on mitigating water stress, but the population growth decreased the efficiency. It was concluded that much greater attention needs to be paid to water conservation in residential and living use to counter these unintended water management effects.

Cities are crucial in carbon reduction and carbon neutrality. However, the contribution of urban green infrastructure (UGI) to achieve these goals has been underestimated. Here, taking the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA) as an example, we develop a methodology incorporating fine-resolution UGI mappings and use the results from 2017 to 2022 to elucidate UGI patterns, trends, and carbon reduction capacity. The results revealed that: 1) Urbanization area increased by scarifying UGI, and the carbon sequestration capacity experienced a decrease and fixed 1.4% carbon emissions in GBA. 2) Based on the climate regulation from UGI, cities in GBA mitigated 29.5% of GBA’s carbon emissions. The total carbon reduction from UGI was 193.6 million tons in 2022. 3) By synthesizing global field measurement studies with meta-analysis, we found that the rate of UGI increased by 1%, and the air temperature decreased by 0.01°C. 4) With consideration of climate changes, we identified that increasing the coverage of UGI is more effective in strengthening the carbon emission reduction capacity than improving UGI quality. This study broadens the capacity of UGI in carbon neutrality, can effectively mitigate urban carbon reduction stress, and provides a novel perspective for urban carbon neutrality in China and elsewhere.