The development, registration and successful launch of a novel, innovative transdermal pharmaceutical product requires an idea, structured planning and a highly skilled, specialist team. It is not often that the opportunity arises to document this activity. This paper demonstrates the multidisciplinary effort required to take such a product (Axiron®, a transdermal testosterone product) from innovation to market and also describes its ultimate fate after the generic drug industry took an interest in its commercial success. Although many understand various aspects of this drug development process this understanding is often, by necessity, limited to the specialities of each of the individuals involved. It is hoped that this paper will provide an interesting overview of the entire process from beginning (innovation) to end (genericization).

To determine the extent of lateral spread and stratum corneum (SC) penetration of caffeine (CAF), hydrocortisone (HC) and ibuprofen (IBU) using a novel concentric tape stripping technique.

Previously we have reported the influence of supersaturation on the permeation of fentanyl across model membranes and skin. The findings indicated that the vehicle and, specifically its residence time in skin, influence the ability of the formulation to enhance membrane drug permeation. The aim of the present study was to probe the role of vehicle components on (trans)dermal drug delivery in more detail. To this end, three commonly used chemical penetration enhancers were selected for investigation namely, propylene glycol (PG), octyl salicylate (OSAL) and isopropyl myristate (IPM). A further objective was to clarify the mechanism of action of OSAL. Model spray formulations were prepared consisting of 10% (v/v) of individual enhancers in ethanol. Saturated and supersaturated systems were evaluated for their ability to promote fentanyl transport across human skin in vitro. Mass balance studies and determination of the extent of uptake of enhancers by skin were also conducted. The results indicated that increasing the degree of drug saturation (DS) does not promote drug permeation for formulations in PG but increasing drug DS did promote drug permeation for IPM and some OSAL systems. This probably reflects faster depletion of PG compared with IPM and OSAL. Non-linear modelling of the permeation data indicated that PG and IPM act to promote drug solubility in the membrane whereas OSAL appears to act as a skin penetration enhancer by increasing drug diffusivity in the skin.

SynopsisTwenty products, containing a radiolabelled form of each active in typical cosmetic formulations, were made and applied to female human epidermal membranes mounted in Franz diffusion cells for 48 h under ‘in use’ conditions. The products consisted of combinations of five formulations (a hydro‐alcoholic gel, an oil in water emulsion, a water in oil emulsion, a microemulsion and an oil) with four model drug actives (testosterone, hydrocortisone, 5‐fluorouracil and ketoconazole). Steady‐state flux appeared to be reached by 8 h and maintained for all products, other than for the microemulsions, consistent with the actives being present in the residual formulation on the skin at saturation. The recovery for each active at the end of the 48‐h study (from a series of stratum corneum tape strips, the remaining skin, cumulative amount penetrating into the receptor solution, product washed from the skin and on the donor chamber cap) ranged from 86.5% to 100.6%. The rank order of the fluxes for the actives from the hydro‐alcoholic gel is consistent with the known active molecular size and polarity determinants for maximum epidermal flux. Actives with similar steady‐state (maximum) fluxes from a range of formulations had retention in the stratum corneum and similar transport rate constants through the stratum corneum. The microemulsion formulation significantly enhanced both the stratum corneum steady‐state flux and transport rate constant for 5‐fluorouracil, hydrocortisone and testosterone. The penetration flux of each active could be related to its size and polarity and appeared maximal when the actives in the different cosmetic formulations applied to the skin under ‘in use’ conditions were likely to remain in the residual product on the skin as a saturated solution after solvent evaporation. Enhanced penetration fluxes can be achieved by formulation selection and an appropriate choice/mix of emollients/adjuvants. The principles described here provide a framework for understanding the delivery of cosmetic ingredients from various formulations.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the permeation of fentanyl from supersaturated formulations when applied to silicone membrane. Silicone was chosen in order to separate the effects of supersaturation from other possible influences of volatile formulation components on biological membranes. Supersaturated formulations containing either propylene glycol/water (PG/H2O) or propylene glycol/ethanol (PG/Et) were prepared containing varying degrees of saturation (DS) of fentanyl. Permeation of finite and infinite doses of the PG/H2O formulations, and finite doses of the PG/Et formulations was investigated using Franz-type diffusion cells. For the PG/H2O formulations a good correlation between the flux and the DS of the formulation up to 5 DS for infinite dose studies (r2 = 0.99), and up to 7 DS for finite dose studies (r2 = 0.98), was evident. Similarly, for the PG/Et formulations there is a good correlation between the mean flux and the theoretical DS of the formulation (r2 = 0.95). Except for the 2 DS formulations, no significant differences were seen in the mean flux between PG/H2O and PG/Et finite dose studies. The larger fluxes observed for infinite doses of the PG/H2O formulations versus finite doses reflect changes in the effective area of diffusion over the time of the experiment for the latter set of experiments. The permeation enhancement observed for PG/Et formulations confirms that enhanced drug thermodynamic activity was induced by ethanol evaporation.

Supersaturation has previously been studied as a mechanism to enhance membrane transport of fentanyl from propylene glycol:water formulations (PG:H(2)O) across silicone. In this study these supersaturated fentanyl formulations were evaluated in human skin. A number of polymers were also screened for their ability to stabilise the supersaturated formulations and permeation was evaluated for both infinite and finite doses. For infinite dose studies, permeation in skin increased linearly with increasing degree of drug saturation (DS) for formulations containing 0.5, 1, 2 DS of fentanyl and a 3 DS formulation stabilised with 1% (w/v) hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC). An excellent correlation was obtained for flux values in silicone compared with flux values in skin, for infinite dose studies for formulations containing 0.5, 1, 2 DS of fentanyl and the 3 DS formulation stabilised HPC. The concentration of the fentanyl in the stratum corneum also increased in proportion to the DS. However the same trend was not observed for finite dose studies. This is because the depletion of the solvent carrier promotes drug crystallisation with consequent implications for membrane transport. Tape-stripping experiments indicated that supersaturation of the drug is maintained in the outer layers of the stratum corneum. The ideal vehicle must, therefore, maintain the drug in solution on and in the skin in a sustained manner for effective transdermal delivery.

Purpose: To model and interpret drug distribution in the dermis and underlying tissues after topical application which is relevant to the treatment of local conditions. Methods: We created a new physiological pharmacokinetic model to describe the effect of blood flow, blood protein binding and dermal binding on the rate and depth of penetration of topical drugs into the underlying skin. We used this model to interpret literature in vivo human biopsy data on dermal drug concentration at various depths in the dermis after topical application of 6 substances. This interpretation was facilitated by our in vitro human dermal penetration studies in which dermal diffusion coefficient and binding were estimated. Results: The model shows that dermal diffusion alone cannot explain the in vivo data and blood and/or lymphatic transport to deep tissues must be present for almost all of the drugs tested. Conclusion: Topical drug delivery systems for deeper tissue delivery should recognise that blood/ lymphatic transport may dominate over dermal diffusion for certain compounds.

The influence of degree of saturation (DS) of oxybutynin on permeation from octyl salicylate (OSAL) or propylene glycol (PG) vehicles was investigated, in vitro, in human skin. The permeation of OSAL and PG was also evaluated and the quantity of drug and solvent in the skin at the end of the diffusion study was measured. For OSAL the permeation of oxybutynin increased linearly with DS of drug for both 25 and 50% OSAL formulations. However, no differences were seen in oxybutynin permeation for formulations with the same DS but with different OSAL amounts, although the drug permeation was always slightly higher for 50% OSAL formulations. There was a decrease in the amount of OSAL extracted from skin with drug concentration (up to 5 DS). There was also a good correlation between the DS calculated from the amount of oxybutynin and OSAL extracted from the skin, and the actual DS of the formulation. In contrast oxbutynin DS did not affect PG permeation and there were no significant differences in oxybutynin permeation for the formulations with different DS. The lack of permeation enhancement for PG formulations appears to be related to PG depletion from the skin. The findings emphasise the importance of maintaining the drug in solution in order to achieve effective permeation from dermal and transdermal formulations.

The effects of supersaturated formulations on drug permeation through artificial and biological membranes have been reported by a number of research groups. However, little information is known about solvent permeation from these supersaturated formulations, and in particular the effect of high drug concentrations and degree of saturation (DS) on solvent activity. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the DS of a model drug, oxybutynin, on solvent and drug permeation. Supersaturated residues of oxybutynin in propylene glycol (PG) or (octyl salicylate) OSAL were prepared by the solvent evaporation method. In both formulations a high percentage (25%, v/v) of solvent was used in order to avoid solvent depletion. Permeation of PG and OSAL through silicone was monitored by GC and HPLC, respectively. All OSAL formulations permeated to a higher extent than PG formulations. A decrease in OSAL permeation with 5 DS formulations was observed in comparison with 1 DS or 2 DS formulations, indicating a decrease in solvent activity with drug concentration. In addition, the drug transport from the 5 DS formulation of OSAL was higher than the 1 and 2 DS formulations but lower than predicted. Based on both solvent and drug permeation, this suggests that the low drug permeation observed with 5 DS resulted from a decrease in solvent thermodynamic activity rather than a decrease in solute activity as a result of drug crystallisation. Using PG formulations, the PG permeation remained unaffected with the DS of the formulation, up to 5 DS.

Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable colloidal dispersions of water and oil stabilized by a surfactant and, in many cases, also a cosurfactant. In the pharmaceutical field, microemulsions have been used as drug carriers for percutaneous, ocular, oral and parenteral administration. This review discusses some of the applications of microemulsions specifically for topical and transdermal applications. Microemulsion nomenclature and composition, with particular emphasis on choice of surfactant and cosurfactant, is discussed. Methods used to characterize microemulsions are reviewed. Microemulsion formulations for dermal and transdermal delivery of pharmaceutical agents with particular emphasis on anti-inflammatory and anaesthetic agents are critically evaluated. Finally, the issues which warrant further investigation by researchers in order to realize the full potential of the technology are discussed.

We demonstrate the potential of fluorescence lifetime imaging by time-correlated single-photon counting as a method for monitoring the transdermal diffusion pathway and diffusion rate of pharmaceuticals in human skin. The current application relies on observing subtle changes in the fluorescence lifetime of the intrinsic fluorophores present in the intracellular region between corneocytes of the stratum corneum. We have comprehensively characterized the measured fluorescence lifetimes from intracorneocyte junctions in three skin section types (dermatomed skin, epidermal membranes and stratum corneum) revealing statistically significant differences of the short lifetime component between each of the types, which we attribute to the sample preparation and imaging method. We show using epidermal membrane sections that application of a drug/solvent formulation consisting of ethinyl estradiol and spectroscopic grade ethanol to the surface gives rise to a slight but statistically significant shortening of the fluorescence lifetime of the long-lived emitting species present in the sample, from approximately 2.8 ns to 2.5 ns. The method may be useful for future studies where the kinetics and pathways of a variety of applied formulations could be investigated.

Systemic absorption following dermal exposure to chemicals is potentially hazardous. The ability of several glove materials to reduce skin permeation of a variety of compounds (including agrochemical and cosmetic materials) has been determined using excised human skin in vitro. In addition to monitoring permeation through glove materials, skin and glove/skin combinations, the uptake of chemicals into glove materials was evaluated. The results demonstrated that realistic performance evaluation procedures for protective materials must take into account many factors. There are numerous questions to be considered other than straightforward permeation of chemicals through glove materials and the availability of additional information pertaining to such actual and potential hazards would aid selection of appropriate materials and increase safety margins.

Objective: Conventional oral oestrogen replacement therapy can relieve postmenopausal symptoms but is associated with undesirable side-effects which can be minimised by avoiding the fluctuating hormonal blood levels resulting from oral therapy and eliminating hepatic first-pass metabolism by the use of the transdermal route. The two commercially available transdermal gel formulations differ in composition and application recommendations. Sandrena Gel contains 0.1% (w/w) and Oestrogel 0.06% (w/w) estradiol and recommended dosages an 0.5-1.5 g over 200-400 cm(2) (Sandrena Gel) and 2.5 g gel over 720 cm(2) (Oestrogel). In transdermal therapy the formulation composition may have a significant effect on drug delivery and we have therefore compared the permeation of estradiol from these formulations across human skin in vitro. Methods: The in vitro percutaneous penetration of estradiol from the formulations through epidermal membranes prepared from excised female human thigh skin was assessed over a 24 h period using static type Franz diffusion cells. Results: Permeation of the active was similar from each formulation representing (at 24 h) 18.2 +/- 3.5% of the applied dose from Sandrena Gel and 17.4 +/- 4.8% of the applied dose from Oestrogel. These percentages equate to cumulative skin permeations of 0.65 +/- 0.15 mu g/cm(2) and 0.45 +/- 0.15 mu g/cm(2) respectively. Conclusion: The results suggest that the two formulations are bioequivalent at the recommended dose levels. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.