This publication is the result of concerns expressed regarding the definition and subsequent use of ground cover in rangeland monitoring. We reviewed 20 monitoring publications. All publications reviewed contained a definition of ground cover and/or direction on how to monitor ground cover. The majority of these publications also defined bare ground. In all cases, bare ground was defined as the opposite of ground cover. We identified critical criteria of ground cover based on the role it plays in soil conservation as it relates to water and wind erosion. Critical criteria identified included standing and nonstanding live vegetation, standing and nonstanding dead vegetation including litter, and rock. We compared these critical criteria to the 20 monitoring publications reviewed. We found 19 of these publications included the criteria standing live vegetation or similar words and standing dead vegetation or similar words in their definition and/or use of ground cover. The one source where standing live or dead vegetation or similar words were not included was “Indicators of Rangeland Health and Functionality in the Intermountain West.” This publication was produced by the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Ground cover was limited to basal vegetation, litter, moss/lichen, or rock. We also found inconsistencies in the definition and subsequent use of ground cover in Forest Service Handbook 2209.21–Rangeland Ecosystem Analysis and Monitoring Handbook, Intermountain Region. We contend a large volume of literature supports the inclusion of critical criteria as identified in this report as ground cover. These criteria are essential components contributing to resistance of water and wind erosion important to soil conservation. This review demonstrates the importance of accurately defining and subsequently including critical criteria in rangeland attributes including ground cover. This paper addresses standardizing terms and calculations used in determining ground cover.

Watersheds on the Uinta-Wasatch-Cache and Ashley National Forests provide many ecosystem services, and climate change poses a risk to these services.We developed a watershed vulnerability assessment to provide scientific information for land managers facing the challenge of managing these watersheds.Literature-based information and expert elicitation is used to define components of watershed sensitivity and exposure to climate change.We also define the capacity of watershed function, habitats, and biota to adapt to the expected changes.Watershed vulnerability is scored high for the Wasatch Mountain Range and moderate to high for the Uinta Mountains.These watersheds are driven by a snow-dominated hydrologic regime, and they have a high sensitivity to the projected increases in drought, heat, and flooding.More evaporation, snowpack loss, and earlier snowmelt are expected to shift the timing of runoff earlier and lower streamflow.The loss of snowpack is projected to be especially pronounced in the Wasatch Range.The effects from climate change can be compounded by the non-climate stressors of fire and land uses.Adaptation to these changes is enhanced when watersheds are in good functioning condition.Management actions can serve as an iterative process that builds resilience and can assist transitions to new states under a changing climate.

Photography and notes on file at the Supervisors Office, Ashley National Forest make it possible to date many fires in mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana) communities on this National Forest. Crown cover of mountain big sagebrush and other shrubs was measured in repeat visits to many burned sites. Burned areas studied varied in age from 1 year to 42 years. Crown cover measurements in these burns demonstrate high capability of mountain big sagebrush to return to burned sites. Crown cover of mountain big sagebrush was highly variable in post burn environments. After 15 years post burn, crown cover of mountain big sagebrush varied from 4 to 46 percent at the various study sites. This variability indicates highly diverse structure and cover of mountain big sagebrush in post burn environments. In addition to crown cover, ground cover was also measured. These measurements demonstrate rapid return of ground cover in mountain big sagebrush communities. Most burned sites had greater than 80 percent ground cover after 5 years post burn.

The Bishop Conglomerate forms broad, gently sloping pediments that include a mantle or veneer of coarse gravel and some cobble over underlying formations. These pediments cover large areas at the margins of the Uinta Mountains. Mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. pauciflora) communities cover rather large areas at the outer edge or lower end of these pediment-plains. These communities are a conspicuous feature of the Diamond Mountain, Brush Creek Mountain, and Taylor Mountain areas toward the eastern end of the Uinta Mountains.

Ecological inventory and vegetation monitoring in the Uinta Mountains and Utah Plateaus on the Ashley National Forest and Manti-LaSal National Forest of the past several years suggest a community type in which yellowbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus ssp. lanceolatus), and slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus) are indicator species. This community type is common at elevations or slope positions where snow depth and duration are sufficient to greatly suppress big sagebrush. Features of this community type are discussed in context of management implications.

Pediment surfaces of the Duchesne River Formation near Lapoint and Quaternary deposits at Grouse Creek, Uintah County, Utah, provide rather uniform habitat conditions on which to contrast the abundance of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron. cristatum) on seeded areas and adjacent unseeded areas. Although crested wheatgrass has persisted as a dominant for over 40 years where it was seeded at one study site, it has spread less than 0.32 km (0.2 mile) into native plant communities from seeded areas of this study. At 15.25 meters (50 feet) from the plow line, crested wheatgrass showed over a six-fold decrease in abundance. Where cattle (Bos taurus) have grazed in winter only, crested wheatgrass stands have persisted for 33 years with very little Wyoming big sagebrush recruitment into the seeded area. In nearby crested wheatgrass seedings, Wyoming big sagebrush has returned to persistent wheatgrass stands after spring and early summer grazing was initiated. Crested wheatgrass has also demonstrated the capability to successfully suppress cheatgrass in Wyoming and mountain big sagebrush communities. Spring and early summer grazing by cattle is indicate as a tool to achieve sagebrush cover where it is desired in crested wheatgrass stands.

Utilization of willow-leaf rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus ssp. salicifolius) was determined by twig measurements in spring and fall at two populations in Duchesne County, Utah. These measurements indicted ungulates used between 38 and 59% of twig growth in 2 years at two sites. Use was mostly in winter when mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elaphus) were present. Cattle (Bos taurus) were also present in summer and fall. Most of the cattle use appeared to be in the fall. Use of two color morphs (white and green) was compared at one site. There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference between use of marked twigs of the color morhps. However, the percent branches browsed did show highly significant seasonal differences between the color morphs (P < 0.01 for three of the four dates but P > 0.2 for the fourth date).

Alpha and beta diversity and vegetative cover for Colorado pinyon (Pinus edulis Engeltn.) and Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma (Torr.) Little) understories of northerly exposures are compared at varying successional stages before and after disturbance. Plant diversity and species richness are highest in seral communities of alder-leaf mountain mahogany and bluebunch wheatgrass where pinyon and juniper canopy cover does not exceed 20 percent. Following disturbance at these sites, the response of native understory species was rapid and vigorous. Timely disturbance within the pinyon-juniper woodland sere ap­ pears necessary in order to maintain a responsive, productive, and diverse native understory. These studies indicate that pinyon­ juniper canopy cover of about 20 percent is a critical point for the maintenance of native understory species. In the Great Basin, Everett (1987) noted that as pinyon­ juniper crown cover increases, cover, productivity, and den­ sity of understory species decrease. In the Green River corridor of Daggett County, UT, similar relationships are evident. On many northerly exposures in the area, plant diversity and species richness are highest in seral communi­ ties where alder-leaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus Raf.) and bluebunch wheatgrass (Elymus spicatus (Pursh) Gould) are commonly associated with approximately 50 other vascular plants. Where crown cover of pinyon­ juniper is less than 20 to 25 percent, response of these native understory species is rapid and vigorous following fire. When crown cover exceeds 30 percent, the understory trends toward depletion and the initial response following fire is slower and less vigorous. At 40 percent or more crown cover, many of the understory plant species have been purged from the community. Established stands of closed pinyon-juniper severely deplete understory seed reserves. Succession following fire in closed stands where crown cover of pinyon-juniper exceeds 40 percent is largely dependent