Malaria vector surveillance is required to determine disease transmission dynamics, vector insecticide susceptibility status, suitable control strategies and impact of control interventions. However, capacity and resources for vector surveillance and insecticide resistance monitoring is often inadequate in most countries at risk of vector-borne diseases. Collaborations and linkages between malaria control policy makers and existing research institutions generating vector surveillance research data are often weak, thereby hindering the availability of data for decision-making. A national vector surveillance programme, mobilizing all stakeholders towards quality data generation and policy making, is required for effective data-driven country-wide vector control. This paper provides an analysis and suggested future directions for such synergized national malaria vector surveillance and insecticide resistance monitoring system currently being implemented by all research and policy stakeholders in Nigeria. The harmonized national vector surveillance system described here can be used as a model for the development or improvement of such structures in other countries with high malaria transmission risks.

The need for evidence-based data, to inform policy decisions on malaria vector control interventions in Nigeria, necessitated the establishment of mosquito surveillance sites in a few States in Nigeria. In order to make evidence-based-decisions, predictive studies using available data becomes imperative. We therefore predict the distribution of the major members of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. in Nigeria. Immature stages of Anopheles were collected from 72 study locations which span throughout the year 2020 resulted in the identification of over 60,000 Anopheline mosquitoes. Of these, 716 breeding sites were identified with the presence of one or more vector species from the An. gambiae complex and were subsequently used for modelling the potential geographical distribution of these important malaria vectors. Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) distribution modeling was used to predict their potentially suitable vector habitats across Nigeria. A total of 23 environmental variables (19 bioclimatic and four topographic) were used in the model resulting in maps of the potential geographical distribution of three dominant vector species under current climatic conditions. Members of the An. gambiae complex dominated the collections (98%) with Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles coustani, Anopheles funestus, Anopheles moucheti, Anopheles nilli also present. An almost equal distribution of the two efficient vectors of malaria, An. gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii, were observed across the 12 states included in the survey. Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii had almost equal, well distributed habitat suitability patterns with the latter having a slight range expansion. However, the central part of Nigeria (Abuja) and some highly elevated areas (Jos) in the savannah appear not suitable for the proliferation of these species. The most suitable habitat for Anopheles arabiensis was mainly in the South-west and North-east. The results of this study provide a baseline allowing decision makers to monitor the distribution of these species and establish a management plan for future national mosquito surveillance and control programs in Nigeria.

Countries like Nigeria have launched Malaria-Lymphatic Filariasis (Malaria-LF) co-intervention plans by targeting joint Anopheles and Culex mosquito human host-seeking behaviour with synergistic insecticide-based control tools. However, insecticide resistance currently threatens mosquito vector control. This study investigated separate and joint pyrethroid insecticide exposure response of Anopheles gambiae and Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes collected from mixed breeding sites in Ilorin, Nigeria. Adult Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes reared from larval collections were exposed in separate and joint insecticide susceptibility tests to permethrin, deltamethrin and alphacypermethrin using WHO kits. Mosquito molecular identifications and knock down resistance ( kdr ) mutation detection were carried out. Mosquito knockdown times (kdt), percentage knockdown, and mortality for the different mosquito and exposure types were compared. Both mosquitoes were resistant to all pyrethroid insecticides tested. Significantly higher deltamethrin Anopheles knockdown was recorded compared to Culex for the joint ( Anopheles 79–89%, Culex 44–50% P ≤ 0.011) and separate ( Anopheles 67–88%, Culex 46–47% P ≤ 0.048) exposures respectively. Time to 95% knock down were shorter by half during separate (2200.9 mins) than in joint (4513.9 mins) Anopheles and Culex mosquito exposures. Faster Anopheles (kdt 50 18.7–68.8) than Culex (kdt 50 22.1–98.8) knockdown was recorded in separate and joint insecticide exposures. Higher but not significantly different ( P ≥ 0.083) mosquito mortalities were recorded from separate ( Anopheles 43–77%, Culex 43–72%) than in joint exposures ( Anopheles 44–68%, Culex 41–69%). There were no significant ( P ≥ 0.072) differences between Anopheles 43–77% and Culex 41–72% mortalities for separate and joint exposures. Anopheles arabiensis (≥ 81.4%), An. gambiae (≥ 10.7%), An. coluzzii (0-1.8%) with different kdr frequencies (44–67%) and Cx. quinquefasciatus without kdr occurrence were identified. The speed of action and morbidity effects of the pyrethroid insecticides tested were lower during joint than in the separate mosquito exposures. Reduced pyrethroid speed of action and morbidity along with multiple mosquito resistance noted could threaten insecticide user-acceptability, performance perception and Malaria-LF co-intervention in the field.

Background: Male mosquito control through swarm spraying and Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits (ATSB) have been identified as potential strategies to complement the regular but insufficient female mosquito-based insecticide-treated net (ITN) approach. However, the effectiveness of these control strategies relies on under-standing the insecticide susceptibility status of the targeted male and female mosquito populations. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the insecticide susceptibility status of male and female An. gambiae s.l. Popu-lations in urban Ilorin, Nigeria. Methods: Using WHO kits and protocol, adult male and female mosquitoes reared from the same larval col-lections from different sites were exposed separately to permethrin, deltamethrin, and alphacypermethrin insecticides. Joint insecticide susceptibility tests, involving exposures of equal numbers of male and female mosquitoes to each insecticide, were also conducted in anticipation of joint insecticide exposure on the field. Exposed mosquitoes were identified to species level. Results: Higher kdt50s (52.5-641.3mins) and lower mortalities (permethrin 39-62%, deltamethrin 57-68%, alphacypermethrin 44-60%), indicating higher levels of resistance, were observed for the females compared to the male (22.1-42.2 mins, 60-94%) mosquitoes. The percentage mortalities of males (71-94%) were sig-nificantly (P ≤ 0.043) higher than those of the jointly exposed females (39-62%). However, separately ex-posed male mosquito mortalities (60-81%) were not significantly (P ≥ 0.067) higher than the females (55-68%). All the male mosquito populations were resistant to permethrin (75-94% mortality), deltamethrin (60-82%), and alphacypermethrin (74-86%) insecticides after joint and separate exposures. Resistant male and female mosquitoes were identified predominantly as An. arabiensis (74-84%). Conclusion: Multiple pyrethroid insecticide resistance detected in the male and female mosquito populations indicates the potential ineffectiveness of pyrethroid-based swarm spraying, pyrethroid ATSB and ITNs in the study location

Introduction: Studies on malaria vector surveillance are useful for evidence-based control in specific communities. Such studies are lacking in Malete, a rapidly growing peri-urban community in Nigeria. Objective: To assess sibling species identity, human blood indices, and Plasmodium falciparum transmission risks by Anopheles mosquitoes, in Malete. Methods: I collected endophilic mosquitoes quarterly from inhabited houses using the pyrethrum spray catch technique. I identified the mosquitoes, and probed for the presence of human blood and P. falciparum, using standard PCR and ELISA methods, respectively. Results: Anopheles mosquitoes (90%) were the most abundant compared to Culex (10%) and Mansonia (0,5%). Specifically, A. gambiae (85%) were predominant over A. coluzzii (11%) and A. arabiensis (3%). The Anopheles sibling species had generally high human blood indices (≥0,82). However, A. gambiae man-biting rates (0,92-3,64) were higher than A. coluzzii (0-0,84) and A. arabiensis (0-0,27). Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection (3%) was found only in A. gambiae. Conclusion: While P. falciparum infection was 3%, long-lasting insecticidal nets should be deployed for control in Malete, particularly of A. gambiae.

Abstract Background Plant oils possess biological activities which offer tremendous potential for disease vector management. This study investigated the bioactivity of selected insecticidal plant oils against Anopheles gambiae s.s. Kisumu Susceptible Strain (KSS) mosquitoes. The plant oils from leaves of Hyptis suaveolens, Ocimum gratissimum, Nicotiana tabacum, Ageratum conyzoides and fruit peels of Citrus sinensis were extracted and the major chemical components analysed using coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The spatial toxicity effects of the plant oils were tested at different concentration (0.1 mg/ml, 0.3 mg/ml and 0.5 mg/ml) against An. gambiae s.s. KSS in a Peet-Grady Chamber. Deltamethrin was used as the positive control. Results D-Limonene was the major chemical component found in Ci. sinensis and Ni. tabacum. Prococene I was the major chemical component in Oc. gratissimum while P-Xylene had the highest percent composition in Ni. tabacum. The control (Deltamethrin) and 0.3 mg/ml concentration of oil from Oc. gratissimum elicited a 100% knockdown on An. gambiae s.s. KSS. At 0.5 mg/ml, oils from Ci. sinensis, Oc. gratissimum and Ni. tabacum elicited significantly (P > 0.05) the same knockdown effect (100%) as the control on An. gambiae s.s. KSS. After 24hrs post-exposure, all the plant oils evaluated elicited 100% mortality on An. gambiae s.s. KSS at both 0.3 and 0.5 mg/ml. The lowest knockdown times KdT50 (34.80 minutes) and KdT95 (92.50 mins) were noted at the lowest concentration (0.1 mg/ml) of oils from Ni. tabacum which was better compared to the control (36.1 and114.9 mins respectively) against An. gambiae s.s. KSS. Conclusions Oc. gratissimum and Ni. tabacum displayed excellent spatial toxicity capabilities against An. gambiae s.s. KSS and can be incorporated into the management of malaria vectors in Nigeria.

Entomological data gathering is essential for monitoring malaria vector disease risks and selection of appropriate interventions for the protection of exposed human populations. This study assessed the relative abundance, species composition, and sporozoite infection rates of indoor resting An. gambiae s.l. malaria vectors in six communities across 3 Local Government Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria. Total number of mosquitoes collected by Pyrethrum Spray Catch method over a period of eighth months were correlated with rainfall values in the area. Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection rates and sibling species identification of collected An. gambiae s.l. mosquito samples were determined by ELISA and PCR respectively. Results showed a positive correlation (r = 0.639, p = 0.08) between rainfall and numbers of Anopheles mosquitoes in the study areas. The overall composition of the An. gambiae s.l sibling species in the collected samples from all the six communities showed the predominance of An. gambiae s.s 298 (75.3%) compared to An. coluzzii 94(23.7%) and An. arabiensis 4(1.0%). However, the sporozoite infection rate of An. coluzzii (22.3%) was higher compared to An. gambiae s.s (12.8%) and An. arabiensis (0%). Mean numbers of An. gambiae s.l mosquitoes were significantly higher in Ilorin west LGA compared to Asa (F = 17.81, P < 0.001) and Ilorin East LGAs (F = 22.81, P < 0.001). Sporozoite rates of both An. gambiae s.s and An. coluzzii sibling species were higher in Ilorin West communities (Aiyede 21%, Ogundele 32%) compared to Asa (Idi Emi 11.1%, Lasoju 5.1%) and Ilorin East (Oke Oyi 2.4%, Ote-efan 0%) communities. Prevalence of sporozoite-infected An. gambiae s.s and An. coluzzii indoors highlight the need for effective insecticide treated bed-nets interventions to protect the residents from malaria risks. Higher numbers of An. coluzzii in the swampy rice marshed Ilorin West LGA communities require larval source management as an additional strategy for effective malaria vector control.

INTRODUCTION:To identify the specific Anopheles mosquito sibling species responsible for malaria transmission, determine their vectorial potential, and predict suitable control measures, this study investigated genetic identities, human blood feeding, and sporozoite infection rates of endophilic Anopheles mosquitoes in Gaa-Bolorunduro, a cattle rearing community in Kwara State, Nigeria.METHODOLOGY:Monthly pyrethrum spray collections of Anopheles mosquitoes were conducted for one year in addition to PCR characterization of sibling species and ELISA probing of human blood meal and sporozoite infections. Mean numbers and human blood indices (HBI) of the different Anopheles sibling species identified were compared.RESULTS:The total of 668 PCR-identified mosquitoes comprised 50.8% An. arabiensis, 46.7% An. gambiae, and 2.5% An. coluzzii. Annual mean numbers of An. arabiensis was significantly higher (p = 0.001) than An. coluzzii but not An. gambiae (p = 0.602). Proportions of An. arabiensis found with human blood (0.29) were lower compared to An. gambiae (0.72) and An. coluzzii (0.75). However, the annual mean HBI of An. arabiensis was not significantly higher than An. gambiae (p = 0.195) and An. coluzzii (p = 0.249). Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection rate was 1.6% in An. gambiae, 0.9% in An. arabiensis and 0% in An. coluzzii.CONCLUSIONS:The prevalent An. arabiensis and An. gambiae mosquitoes found indoors, despite the outdoor cattle population barrier, could be targeted by community-scale utilization of long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets. Further studies on outdoor mosquito surveillance and bovine blood meal identification are required for the recommendation of suitable complementary vector control measures for the community.

Background: Mosquitoes transmit severe diseases such as malaria, lymphatic filariasis, dengue fever, and yellow fever. These diseases result in significant morbidity and mortality in humans around the world. This study aimed to provide information on the larvicidal potential of different Citrus species peels against Culex mosquito larvae. Methods: Ethanol extracts of the peels of four Citrus species, such as Citrus sinensis (sweet orange), Citrus reticulata (tangerine), Citrus latifolia (lime), and Citrus paradisi (grape) fruits were tested for larvicidal properties against Culex pipiens at different concentration (3 mg, 5 mg, 7 mg and 8 mg in 100 mL) on 25 larva per concentration. Percentage mortality was recorded for each of the concentrations used. Results: Only Culex latifolia induced the death of all the mosquito larvae (100%) at 5 mg/mL concentration of the extract, meanwhile Culex reticulata resulted in the lowest mortality rate (80%). However, a hundred percent (100%) mortality of the larvae, was observed at 8 mg/mL of all the types of extracts evaluated. Conclusion: The result indicates that the peels of these Citrus species, especially Culex latifolia, hold potential for control of Culex pipiens mosquito larvae.

Background: Tourette Syndrome (TS) is an uncommon neuropsychiatric disorder and less frequently diagnosed. The population prevalence estimate of TS in children was 0.3% to 0.9%. In Nigeria, this suggests that approximately 100,000 people are affected considering the estimated population of 200,000,000. Objective: To present a case report of a teenager with a diagnosis of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. Case Report: This is case report of a 15-year-old female secondary school student who presented to psychiatric department of a Nigerian Teaching Hospital with 3 years history of verbal and physical aggression towards parents and siblings. She was abusive and sometimes beats her siblings and parents for no obvious reason. She talks repeatedly to imaginary person, saying “leave me alone, I am not killing your child, you do not have respect” She sometimes hits the imaginary person. She blinks, hisses, grunts and shouts. These behaviours are repetitive, usually last for about 3 minutes. Tourette syndrome diagnosis was made after comprehensive evaluation using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) criteria. Conclusion: The appropriate referral of this patient is of great benefit in the course of her illness. She achieved significant improvement to enable her continue education.

Timely and consistent insecticide resistance monitoring efforts are required for early planning of management strategies. Here, we present the first report on bendiocarb, deltamethrin and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations from Adamawa, North Eastern Nigeria. Mosquitoes reared from larval collections were exposed to DDT (4%), bendiocarb (0.1%) and deltamethrin (0.05%) insecticides using standard WHO test kits and protocols. Species-specific Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and PCR-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assays were used to determine the sibling species composition of the exposed mosquitoes while allele-specific PCR was used for kdr genotyping in the mosquitoes that survived after insecticide exposure. Mosquito populations from all the four study sites in Vimtim, Imburu, Muchala and Bachure were resistant (≤ 87% mortality) to DDT and deltamethrin insecticides. Mosquito populations exposed to bendiocarb showed suspected resistance in Vimtim and Imburu study sites and confirmed resistance in Muchala and Bachure sites respectively. Mosquitoes alive after deltamethrin, DDT and bendiocarb exposures were identified predominantly as An. coluzzii species (78.5 - 92%) compared to An. gambiae s.s (5.3 - 11%) and An. arabiensis (0 - 10.1%). All the 22 kdr positive mosquitoes collected were identified as An. coluzzii. Percentage occurrence of kdr alleles in the mosquito populations alive after deltamethrin and DDT exposures were 30% and 25% respectively. An. coluzzii (≥ 63%) was the predominant species identified in each study site compared to An. gambiae sensu stricto (s.s) (≤ 20%) and An. arabiensis (≤ 17.4%) species. The results of kdr associated pyrethroid resistance is a potential threat to the effectiveness of the currently deployed deltamethrin-impregnated bed-net campaigns in Adamawa state. Evidence of bendiocarb carbamate resistance also implies potential ineffectiveness of future bendiocarb Indoor Residual Spraying. The involvement of metabolic resistance mechanisms in the mosquitoes from these study sites should be investigated for proper insecticide resistance management.

Abstract. Adelaja OJ, Oduola AO, Abiodun OO, Adeneye AK, Obembe A. 2021. Plants with insecticidal potential used by ethnic groups in North-Central Nigeria for the management of hematophagous insects. Asian J Ethnobiol 4: 65-75. Studies on the traditional knowledge of insecticidal plants are vital in the discovery of bioactive components for the management of hematophagous insects. This study investigated the ethnobotany and traditional knowledge of insecticidal plants among nine ethnic groups in North-Central Nigeria. Information on identifying insecticidal plants and their traditional knowledge among community leaders, elders, herb sellers, and herbalists was collected between January and December 2017, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The mentioned plants were collected and identified. A total of 388 respondents were interviewed from nine ethnic groups. All the respondents had knowledge of medicinal and insecticidal plants in their communities. The respondents mentioned 17 insecticidal plants. The most frequently mentioned plants were Hyptis suaveolens (19.6%, 76/388), Ocimum gratissimum (18.7%, 73/388), and Citrus sinensis (10.8%, 42/388). Hanging of plants in homes was reported among 52.9% of the respondents and smoldering for personal protection among 47.1%. The respondents also acknowledged that these plants were available (88.4%), accessible (77%), and very effective (76.3%) in controlling hematophagous insects. There was a significant relationship (P<0.05) between the perceived efficacy of these plants and the gender, age, educational status, and ethnicity of respondents. This study documented the knowledge and evidence of insecticidal plants among ethnic groups in North-Central Nigeria.

Studies profiling community and zonal malaria entomological risk indices are required to identify high risk areas where targeted control resources are most needed or likely to have the greatest impact on reducing risk of malaria infection. This study presents a first report on malaria vector risk indices in two vegetation zones within Adamawa state, Nigeria. Endophilic mosquitoes were collected for one year in selected communities in the Guinea and Sudan savanna zones within the State. Plasmodium falciparum Sporozoite and human blood meal ELISA assays were carried out on the female Anopheles mosquitoes collected. Sibling species composition of the An. gambiae complex were determined using PCR assays. Mean numbers of mosquitoes in the Guinea savanna communities were significantly (t = 7.73, DF = 11, p < 0.001) higher than the Sudan. Man-biting rates (F = 2.76, p = 0.13) of Anopheles mosquitoes were higher in the Guinea but not significantly different from Sudan savanna. Sporozoite rates of mosquitoes within the Guinea savanna were 2.7 times higher than the Sudan. The predominant Anopheles coluzzii species encountered in the state had higher overall human blood indices (0.63) and sporozoite rates (6.9%) compared to An. gambiae (0.39, 1.9%) and An. arabiensis (0.58, 2.3%) respectively. Overall annual human blood indices (0.59) of mosquitoes in Adamawa were lower compared to reports from other States. Prevalence and higher transmission risks indices of endophilic An. coluzzii mosquitoes reveal the need for LLIN and management of relatively permanent An. coluzzii breeding sites in the State. Widespread cattle rearing lifestyle and lower human blood indices of mosquitoes in the study area suggest the need to investigate cattle blood indices of the mosquitoes in the state. Higher entomological risk indices in the Guinea Savanna zone provide baseline information for prioritization of malaria vector control supplies within the State.

Entomological indices within a specific area vary with climatic factors such as rainfall, temperature and relative humidity. Contributions of such weather parameter fluctuations to the changes in entomological data obtained within a community under implementation of a promising vector control intervention should be taken into account. This study reports on inter-annual changes in entomological indices within two rural communities, one of which was under insecticide-treated durable wall lining (DL) installation.

Despite the availability of effective malaria vector control intervention tools, implementation of control programmes in Nigeria is challenged by inadequate entomological surveillance data. This study was designed to assess and build the existing capacity for malaria vector surveillance, control and research (MVSC&R) in Nigerian institutions.

The behavioural effect of tobacco smoke on endophilic Anopheles mosquitoes was observed in two North Central Nigerian villages. Pyrethrum spray and exit trap collections of mosquitoes were conducted, between April and November 2014, in two different villages where tobacco smoking was common among the residents. Anopheles mosquito samples collected were identified to sibling species level using species-specific polymerase chain reaction. Presence of human blood in the blood-fed mosquitoes was determined by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Numbers of mosquitoes collected from the rooms inhabited by tobacco smokers and non-smokers were compared using Student’s t-test (p<0.05). At least four times higher exit rates, five times less gravid females and significantly lower numbers of An. gambiae s.l mosquitoes were found in rooms inhabited by tobacco smokers compared to equal sized rooms occupied by non-smokers in each village. Blood feeding rates (77-88%) and human blood indices (0.82-0.87) of mosquitoes were generally high in the habitations of both tobacco smokers and non-smokers. There was predominance of An. gambiae (≥ 86%) species compared to An. coluzzii (≤ 14%) in both villages. Reduced mosquito endophily was observed in the habitations of tobacco smokers compared to the non-smokers. Widespread tobacco smoking habits should be investigated for possible contributions to mosquito behavioural resistance and residual malaria parasite transmission within rural communities. Keywords: Anopheles mosquitoes, Tobacco Smoke, Exophily, Malaria

In this study, pharmacological reactivity of rabbit ileum to crude extract of fruits of Xylopia aethiopica in the presence of other agonist and antagonist agents was evaluated. The contractility of the isolated rabbit ileum was recorded using kymograph. The effects of the crude extract of X. aethiopica on rabbit ileum were independently determined using a dose range of 10-8 to 10-4 mg/ml. However, to determine the effects of the extract on rabbit ileum in the presence of other agonist and antagonist a constant dose of 10-4 mg/ml of the extract was used. The result showed that the crude extract of X. aethiopica, nifedipine only and serotonin only produced a significant (p<0.001) dose dependent relaxation of the ileum muscle. Addition of the extract to nifedipine shifted the graph to the right. Administration of CaCl2 alone produce a dose dependent contraction of the rabbit ileum with negative correlation coefficient (p<0.001). Co-administration of CaCl2 with the extract shifted the CaCl2 response curve to the left. Addition of extract to serotonin caused a significant (p<0.01) decreased in the relaxation of the rabbit ileum. In conclusion, this study suggests that X. aethiopica has smooth muscle relaxant effects on rabbit ileum and as such may reduce gastrointestinal motility. Key word: Xylopia aethiopica, smooth muscle, Ileum, motility, agonist.

Bedbugs are cosmopolitan insects of public health importance. Their characteristic biting and blood feeding activities result in both physical symptoms and psychological distress in affected hosts. This study investigated the incidence of bedbug and control practices among students and indigenes living in two different settlements in Ilorin, Nigeria. Bedbug were surveyed and collected from household materials from fifty apartments randomly selected from each of the new and old student hostels and family houses in Tanke and Oja-Oba area of Ilorin. Bedbugs collected were persevered in 70 % alcohol and identified using taxonomic keys. A structured questionnaire was used to obtain information on respondent’s demography, perception about bedbug infestation and control practices in sampled houses in the study areas. Sampled data were analysis using percentages. Results from the survey revealed that the number of respondents with knowledge of bedbug was not significant (p>0.05) compared with those without. Family houses in indigenous Oja-Oba study location were the only site with bed-bug infestation. Higher numbers of bedbugs were collected on mattresses. Out of the 200 respondents, 20 (10 %) employed the use of chemical method in bedbug control and precisely, 12 (60 %) of these use a locally made formulation named otapiapia. The intensity of infestation in Oja-Oba and insignificant knowledge of bedbug among the respondents suggest the need to raise the level of public awareness and also canvass for an improved living conditions in the affected areas .