Modern European genetic structure demonstrates strong correlations with geography, while genetic analysis of prehistoric humans has indicated at least two major waves of immigration from outside the continent during periods of cultural change. However, population-level genome data that could shed light on the demographic processes occurring during the intervening periods have been absent. Therefore, we generated genomic data from 41 individuals dating mostly to the late 5th/early 6th century AD from present-day Bavaria in southern Germany, including 11 whole genomes (mean depth 5.56×). In addition we developed a capture array to sequence neutral regions spanning a total of 5 Mb and 486 functional polymorphic sites to high depth (mean 72×) in all individuals. Our data indicate that while men generally had ancestry that closely resembles modern northern and central Europeans, women exhibit a very high genetic heterogeneity; this includes signals of genetic ancestry ranging from western Europe to East Asia. Particularly striking are women with artificial skull deformations; the analysis of their collective genetic ancestry suggests an origin in southeastern Europe. In addition, functional variants indicate that they also differed in visible characteristics. This example of female-biased migration indicates that complex demographic processes during the Early Medieval period may have contributed in an unexpected way to shape the modern European genetic landscape. Examination of the panel of functional loci also revealed that many alleles associated with recent positive selection were already at modern-like frequencies in European populations ∼1,500 years ago.

Simultaneous collective burials appear quite regularly in early medieval linear cemeteries. Despite their relatively regular occurrence, they are seen as extraordinary as the interred individuals’ right to be buried in a single grave was ignored for certain reasons. Here, we present a study examining the possible familial relationship of early medieval individuals buried in this way by using aDNA analysis of mitochondrial HVR-I, Y-STRs, and autosomal miniSTRs. We can show that biological relatedness may have been an additional reason for breaking the usual burial custom besides a common cause of death, such as the Plague, which is a precondition for a simultaneous burial. Finally, with our sample set, we also see that signs of interaction between individuals such as holding hands which are often interpreted by archeologists as signs of biological or social relatedness, do not always reflect true genetic kin relationships.

Objectives Stone-lined graves, which first appear in Bavarian territory during the 7th century AD, are assumed to be tombs of emerging nobility. While previous research on stone-lined grave goods supports their status as elite burials, an important factor defining nobility—kinship—has not been examined so far. Materials and methods Morphological analysis of the commingled skeletal remains of 21 individuals from three archaeological sites was carried out. Radiocarbon dating was conducted on these individuals to gain information on usage intervals of these graves. To test whether stone-lined graves can be considered family graves, analyses of mitochondrial HVR I, Y-chromosomal and autosomal STRs were carried out. Results Morphological examination revealed a surplus of males buried in stone-lined graves and radiocarbon dating points to usage of the tombs for several generations. According to aDNA analysis, kinship can be assumed both between and within stone-lined graves. Discussion Taken together, these results hint at burials of family members with high social status being inhumed at the same site, in some cases even the same grave, for several generations. They also suggest, for the first time, that an early medieval linear cemetery was structured according to biological kinship.

As part of this project 122 individuals from ancient Bavarian cemeteries were re-examined. On the basis of visual examination 26 of these individuals seemed to display artificial cranial deformations which would suggest a foreign origin. New metrical analysis brought to light that only the skulls of twelve individuals were indeed artificially deformed. With one exception the deformed skulls belonged to women who had reached at least adulthood and showed no other peculiarities. From an archaeological point of view they do not form a homogeneous group as the grave goods indicate the women's different social statuses and varying regional relations (of these women). However, according to the newly conducted C-14 dating all women with cranial deformation might have been contemporaries of Attila whereas the only man with an artificially deformed skull seems to have lived significantly earlier than the women. The presented data also highlights the need to re-evaluate all identified cranial deformations of Europe, especially using metrical analysis. Only then can this phenomenon be compared on a supra-regional level.

Zusammenfassung: Vergangene Pestepidemien wurden vor allem in schriftlichen Quellen überliefert; insbesondere die Justinianische Pest des frühen Mittelalters und der Schwarze Tod des späten Mittelalters wurden dort in lebendigen Farben beschrieben. Vor der Einführung der aDNA-Analyse war es aber oftmals schwierig, archäologische nachgewiesene Bestattungen eindeutig der Pest zuzuweisen – vor allem in Gegenden, wo schriftliche Überlieferungen, die die Pest erwähnen, fehlen. Die Analyse alter DNA erlaubt es nun, die Opfer der Pest eindeutig im archäologischen Befund zu identifizieren. In diesem Artikel sollen daher die ersten bekannten Beispiele von durch aDNA-Analyse bestätigten Pestgräbern aus Deutschland aus dem frühen Mittelalter, dem späten Mittelalter und dem 30-jährigen Krieg präsentiert und mit einander verglichen werden.

OBJECTIVES:Straight next to a segment of the outer ditch of the Late Neolithic Michelsberg Culture earthwork of Bruchsal-Aue in SW-Germany (ca. 4250-3650 calBC), a multiple burial of eight individuals (two male adults and six children) plus a subsequent child burial was excavated. In this study, we applied a multidisciplinary approach to elucidate interpersonal relationships and life histories within this collective.MATERIALS AND METHODS:To determine the identity of this collective, we performed aDNA analyses in addition to osteological examination using HVR I plus Y-chromosomal and autosomal STR profiling to find evidence for kinship relations. Strontium isotopic analyses were used to reconsider migrational behavior. To find evidence for a specific social affiliation, the individual diet was reconstructed by performing nitrogen and carbon isotopic analyses. Furthermore, radiocarbon-dating was carried out to integrate the burial context into an absolute timeframe. Two nearby single burials were included in the analyses for comparison.RESULTS:Because of a shared HVR I haplotype, three pairs of individuals were most likely linked by kinship, and statistical testing on autosomal STR profiles shows a high probability for the pair of two men being brothers. Although it cannot be excluded, isotopic data gave no clear proof for migration. A rather poor health status is indicated by skeletal stress markers even though the isotope data attest to a diet rich in meat and fish.DISCUSSION:Although clear kinship relations among the infants remain unconfirmed, a relationship could also be indicated by the positioning of the bodies in the burial pit. Whereas a common cause of death might have been the presupposition for their special treatment, interpersonal relationships were likely the decisive factor for the multiple burial.