Transported cover is a persistent problem for mineral exploration in Australia and elsewhere in the world. Explorers are not confident in the current understanding of where, when, and how geochemical anomalies form (or don't form) in the cover and how to make the critical interpretive link to buried mineral deposits. Understanding how elements move through transported cover and their link to buried mineralization is increasingly important for exploration success in many regions of the world. At the Kintyre U deposits, groundwater, regolith, soil, Triodia basedowii (spinifex), Acacia ancistrocarpa foliage and litter, and termite (Nasutitermes triodiae) mound materials were sampled and analysed to test if near surface methods can detect mineralization through < 1 to 80 m of cover. Near surface soil geochemistry, biogeochemistry and hydrogeochemistry weak anomalies did not correlate with primary mineralization through cover except in residual subcropping zones and the thin (< 5 m) cover adjacent to these sites. Termite mounds, and to a lesser degree, A. ancistocarpa appear to reflect the mineralized signature in shallow cover (< 10 m). A postulated metal migration model for this site links mechanical and chemical weathering and surface colluvial/alluvial down-slope dispersion, with U migration from the Kintyre Hill outcrop to the near surface environment. Plants, soils and groundwater are most likely cycling (near-background levels of) U in the cover at Kintyre. In shallow cover, plants and termite mounds are potential viable sample media. However, for exploration on sites with deep heterogeneous cover, geophysical responses or other new techniques will need to be developed to provide a traceable surface signature.

Previous research has demonstrated that small mounds of the termite Tumulitermes tumuli (Froggatt) can successfully be used as a geochemical sample medium for detecting Au mineralization concealed beneath transported cover. This finding is in contrast to the use of large mound forming species typically targeted for exploration in northern Australia and Africa. Large areas of Australia not only have small mound forming termites present but also have subterranean termites and ants. Subterranean termites can have large nests hidden sub-surface. When foraging they sheath their food sources with soil in order to create a microclimate. Here we investigate the use of this material along with nest material from an ant species as sampling media for geochemical exploration in the Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia.

As mineral exploration moves into regions dominated by transported cover, conventional techniques (e.g., lag gravel) may not be applicable and thus, increasingly, there is a need for new, innovative approaches. To develop these approaches, potential mechanisms that transfer metals from buried mineral deposits through cover to the surface need to be identified. This paper presents an overview of some of the experimental and field trials conducted in Australia as part of an industry-supported three-year CSIRO/AMIRA project. The objective was to define vadose zone processes that might form elemental anomalies at surface over buried deposits in semiarid and arid terrains, and to compare methods that detect these anomalies. Studies were conducted at seven sites representing orogenic Au, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS; Cu-Zn-Ag), and magmatic Ni mineralization with transported cover ranging in thickness from 2 to 30 m. Three vertical metal migration mechanisms are important in vadose environments: (1) biological, (2) gaseous, and (3) capillary. An integrated approach, combining different mechanisms with the nature and evolution of transported regolith and climatic settings, was considered to obtain the best prediction of metal transfer. Upward element transfer by vegetation (Acacia aneura and Eucalyptus spp.) occurs in areas of transported cover up to 30 m thick, but not in environments which lack supergene enrichment and have hypersaline acid groundwater. Microbial populations are different in soil over mineral deposits than in those from background sites. Metals, detected by gas collectors, are transferred to surface as gases. Soil pit experiments show that strong geochemical anomalies can form rapidly (over 7 months) through 2 m of transported cover, and assist in understanding the genesis of natural geochemical anomalies. Seasonal variations suggest that migration of elements from source to surface may vary in time and intensity. Anomaly formation in the pit experiments is an episodic process largely driven by capillarity, in which batches of metals in water-soluble form are translocated. Soil-forming processes may form false anomalies and the data need to be interpreted with care.

The Moolart Well gold deposit lies in the Duketon Greenstone Belt in the Western Australian Goldfields in an area that has seen nearly 150 years of Au exploration with limited success due to the transported cover masking deposits. Here, the site displays no anomaly indicative of underlying mineralization within surface soils. Termites have the ability to burrow to the subsoil and contribute to the development of soil profiles through bioturbation. This study discusses the use of mounds formed by the termite Tumulitermes tumuli from a site where shallow ferruginised palaeochannel sediments with secondary Au enrichment overlays deeper primary mineralization. A series of samples from termite nests and surrounding soil were sampled along a transect from background areas to over mineralization. Various fractions of these samples were analysed with ICP-MS/AES. Tumulitermes tumuli is able to bring sub-surface mineralized material to the surface from 1 to 4 m depth. Termite mounds over mineralization and soil immediately adjacent to the mounds display an Au anomaly in both <250 and >250 µm fractions. Very high concentrations (>5000 ppb) were found in >2000 µm fractions in nests over mineralization as a result of vertical transport of anomalous pisolitic gravels by termites. These results suggest termite-driven local soil heterogeneity and termite mounds being a consistent geochemical and mineralogical sample medium for the discovery of ore deposits beneath weathered cover and shallow sediments.

The aim of this study was to determine specific distribution of metals in the termite Tumulitermes tumuli (Froggatt) and identify specific organs within the termite that host elevated metals and therefore play an important role in the regulation and transfer of these back into the environment. Like other insects, termites bio-accumulate essential metals to reinforce cuticular structures and utilize storage detoxification for other metals including Ca, P, Mg and K. Previously, Mn and Zn have been found concentrated in mandible tips and are associated with increased hardness whereas Ca, P, Mg and K are accumulated in Malpighian tubules. Using high resolution Particle Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) mapping of whole termites and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spot analysis, localised accumulations of metals in the termite T. tumuli were identified. Tumulitermes tumuli was found to have proportionally high Mn concentrations in mandible tips. Malpighian tubules had significant enrichment of Zn (1.6%), Mg (4.9%), P (6.8%), Ca (2.7%) and K (2.4%). Synchrotron scanning X-ray Fluorescence Microprobe (XFM) mapping demonstrated two different concretion types defined by the mutually exclusive presence of Ca and Zn. In-situ SEM EDX realisation of these concretions is problematic due to the excitation volume caused by operating conditions required to detect minor amounts of Zn in the presence of significant amounts of Na. For this reason, previous researchers have not demonstrated this surprising finding.

An ether based polyurethane (EPU) was blended with a synthetic pyrethroid, Bifenthrin (R), to produce a material for potential use as a termite barrier for timber structures. FTIR was used to investigate the interaction between the active component and the polymer; whereas distribution of the active was probed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The aromatic end of the Bifenthrin molecule was found to interact with the hard segments of the EPU, whereas the active end of the Bifenthrin (R) molecule was found to be concentrated at the surface of the blend. The efficacy of the blends was demonstrated to induce high mortality rates when the blend was directly tested against termites. (C) 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 116: 1635-1639, 2010

A number of arthropod taxa contain metals in their mandibles (jaws), such as zinc, manganese, iron, and calcium. The occurrence of zinc and its co-located halogen chlorine have been studied in relation to the mechanical properties and shown to be linked in a direct fashion with increasing concentration. Hardness along with elastic modulus (stiffness) has also been linked to zinc and halogen concentration in some marine polychaete worms. The metal appears to be incorporated within the biological matrix, possibly bonding with proteins. However, the comparative advantage of metal inclusion has not been tested. It is possible that without metals, alternative mechanisms are used to achieve hardness of equal value in similar 'tools' such as mandibles. This question has direct bearing on the significance of metal hardening. In the present article, we compare across mandibles from six termite species, including samples with major zinc concentration, minor manganese, and no metals. Nanoindentation, electron microscopy, and electron microanalysis are used to assess metal concentration, form, and mechanical properties. The data demonstrate that termite mandibles lacking metals when fully developed have lower values for hardness and elastic modulus. Zinc is linked to a relative 20% increase in hardness when compared with mandibles devoid of metals. The similar transition metal, manganese, found in minor concentrations, is not linked to any significant increase in these mechanical properties. This raises the question of the function of manganese, which is as commonly found in insect mandibles as zinc and often located in the same mandibles.

This study investigates the characteristics of leaching into a solvent of an active used as termiticide, Bifenthrin® (a synthetic pyrethroid) entrapped in polymer, and the effect of layered silicates on this diffusion. Two contrasting solvents, water and acetone, were used to understand this phenomenon; the active is soluble in acetone but has very low solubility in water. The data are used to understand the migration characteristics of Bifenthrin when encapsulated in polyurethane to form a termite barrier. The absorption characteristics of Bifenthrin in polyethylene were also studied for comparison. Bifenthrin-polyurethaneblends containing 0, 0.5, and 5% of layered silicates were prepared and monitored for the release of Bifenthrin. Using the time-concentration dependence of the active in polymer, diffusion coefficients of Bifenthrin from the polymer were inferred assuming Fickian diffusion. The presence of silicates had no significant effect on the diffusion behavior. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008

Previously, the presence of metals in arthropod mandibles has been linked with harder cuticle, and in termites, a 20% increase in hardness has been found for mandibles containing major quantities of zinc. The current study utilises electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis to assess incidence and abundance of metals in all extant subfamilies of the Isoptera. The basal clades contain no zinc and little to no manganese in the cutting edge of the mandible cuticle, suggesting that these states are ancestral for termites. However, experimentation with mandibles in vitro indicates the presence of some elements of the cuticular biochemistry necessary to enable uptake of zinc. The Termopsidae, Serritermitidae, Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae all contain minor quantities of manganese, while trace to minor quantities of zinc occur in all except the Serritermitidae. In contrast, all Kalotermitidae or drywood termites contain major levels of zinc in the mandible edge. Diet and life type are explored as links to metal profiles across the termites. The presence of harder mandibles in the drywood termites may be related to lack of access to free water with which to moisten wood. Scratch tests were applied to a set of mandibles. The coefficient of friction for Cryptotermes primus (Kalotermitidae) mandibles, when compared with species from other subfamilies, indicates that zinc-containing mandibles are likely to be more scratch resistant.

The foraging process of location and exploitation of food in complex termite societies is in part reliant upon unequal division of specific tasks amongst its members (polyethism). To conduct studies assessing the role of individuals in foraging activities it is necessary to have descriptors of worker caste and instar. Here we provide biometric descriptors of specific caste and instar for worker caste and instars of Microcerotermes turneri (Froggatt) (Termitidae: Termitinae) for the worker castes (male and female) for the identification of individuals in laboratory assays applicable across multiple nests.The use of head width for determining sex of workers was successful across multiple nests. The length of the first three flagellum segments of the antenna and tibia three could be used to determine worker instar.

Traditional measures of termite food preference assess consequences of foraging behavior such as wood consumption, aggregation and/or termite survivorship. Although studies have been done to investigate the specifics of foraging behavior this is not generally integrated into choice assay experiments. Here choice assays were conducted with small isolated (orphaned) groups of workers and compared with choice assays involving foragers from whole nests (non-orphaned) in the laboratory. Aggregation to two different wood types was used as a measure of preference. Specific worker caste and instars participating in initial exploration were compared between assay methods, with samples of termites taken from nest carton material and sites where termites were feeding. Aggregation results differ between choice assay techniques. Castes and instars responsible for initial exploration, as determined in whole nest trials, were not commonly found exploring in isolated group trials, nor were they numerous in termites taken from active feeding sites. Consequently the use of small groups of M. turneri worker termites extracted from active feeding sites may not be appropriate for use in choice assays.

There is an emerging huge cost to buildings and other wooden structures from termite damage in urban Australia. Concerns about the environmental and public health consequences of the large quantity and frequent reapplication of termiticides (chemicals for the treatment of termites) in urban Australia has led stakeholders to identify a need to have appropriate information that reflects local conditions about their environmental and health effects. There are costs associated with the prevention and treatment of termite infestation in wooden structures. Reapplication of chemical barriers is required every 2 to 5 years depending on the products used and local conditions. Currently in urban Australia, we have been enjoying a period of overlap where older buildings are still being protected by the organochlorines while new structures are treated with organophosphates or pyrethroids. However, the effectiveness of the residual organochlorines is now reducing, and older houses may be at risk of termite infestation. The potential costs of re-treatment and repairs are likely to increase dramatically in the future as older slab-on-ground dwellings become susceptible due to the eventual breakdown of the organochlorine termiticides. It is critical to identify information gaps between current acceptable industry practice for termite management in urban locations and public concerns. This may be achieved by recognising gaps in knowledge of each component of termite management, from termite ecology through to the present and future use of termiticides, and identifying these in terms of industry, public and client priorities. A review on aspects of environmental effects of currently used termiticides, along with a review of previous, current and future termiticides in the context of appropriate techniques for termite management and client priorities has identified several requirements including the following: (i) Further information on Australian termite biology, taxonomy, ecology and behaviour; (ii) Improved definition of the problem of termite infestation needs to be defined, locally and nationally; (iii) Identification of high-risk structures and building types, so that preventive measures can be taken in terms of design and construction; and (iv) Further education for homeowners, builders, designers, legislators and landscape designers in terms of practices in landscaping and design that inadvertently favour termites. Such approaches provide a pathway to deal with the “attack” by termites on buildings in urban Australia.

Attracting people from their cars to more sustainable means of transport is an underlying objective for many at this conference. However we know that people still cling to their cars and are reluctant to try buses. How easy is it to catch a bus? How does legibility of the bus network affect travel behaviour decisions? Are commuters able to realise the actual potential of the system? This paper identifies the decision process involved in catching a bus and investigates the actual behaviour of commuters in Auckland. Auckland has a complex system with no consistent network and is composed of an amalgam of operators with different brands, liveries, route brands and ticketing. Commuters� travel behaviour in this environment provides important clues about designing networks that are legible and easy to use. This work is supported by the Auckland Regional Council and it will assist with network planning. (a) For the covering entry of this conference, please see ITRD abstract no. E212706.

A key issue in transport provision is how to determine where investment in a network’s service can be most effective, given a budget that does not allow all the investments desired. Methodologically this can also be an issue, as often there are a myriad of options available - too many for the customer to easily trade-off, and too many for traditional approaches such as conjoint analysis. Using both a non-parametric approach and the indices approach advocated by Swanson, Ampt and Jones (1997), 600 rail passengers are examined across 15 alternative scenarios, to derive customer preferences for proposed changes to the Auckland Rail network through evaluation of their affect (liking) for the scenarios and likely resultant behaviour. Fisher’s (1974) environmental quality scale is used to assess customer affect. (a) For the covering entry of this conference, please see ITRD abstract no. E211825.

AbstractThe effect of monitor bezel color (diffuse reflectance) on task performance, visual abilities, subjective comfort level, and preference in using software with graphical user interfaces was measured. Frame color had no effect on task performance or visual metrics (acuity, contrast sensitivity). Subjective ratings of discomfort were similarly higher at the end of 4 hours of work across all monitor bezel colors. The darkest bezel color was preferred by 2/3 of the participants at the end of 3 days, after using a different monitor bezel color on each day.