Background: Sandfly fever viruses (Phleboviruses, family Phenuiviridae) are important but neglected causes of febrile illness in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, and Central Asia. Their clinical presentation overlaps with malaria and enteric fever, complicating diagnosis. In Sudan, historical studies documented outbreaks in Northern and Khartoum provinces, but targeted seroprevalence data remain limited, and no recent surveys have addressed their broader distribution. Aim: This study aimed to uncover hidden viral etiologies and provide evidence for the endemic circulation of these pathogens Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional serological study of 201 febrile, Malaria-Negative patients from Northern, Khartoum, El-Gadarif, and Red Sea states. Serum samples were tested for immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies against Sandfly Fever Sicilian Virus (SFSV), Sandfly Fever Naples Virus (SFNV), Toscana Virus (TOSV), and Cyprus Virus (CYPV) using a highly specific Indirect Flouresence AntibodyTechnique for detection of IgM and IgG. Statistical analysis assessed prevalence differences between states. Results: IgG antibodies against all four viruses were detected in all states, confirming widespread exposure. Overall IgG prevalence was highest for SFSV (46.7%) and CYPV (45.3%), followed by SFNV (29.9%) and TOSV (29.4%). Significant differences between states were observed for SFSV, SFNV, and CYPV (p < 0.05). IgM antibodies, reflecting recent infection, were less frequent, with overall prevalence ranging from 2.5% (SFNV) to 12.7% (SFSV). SFNV IgM was absent in Northern state but present in the other three states. Notably, antibodies against CYPV and TOSV were detected for the first time in Sudan, expanding the known spectrum of circulating phleboviruses. Conclusion: This study provides new evidence of the endemic circulation of four sandfly fever viruses in Sudan, including the first reports of CYPV and TOSV. High IgG prevalence underscores widespread past exposure, while IgM detection indicates ongoing transmission. These findings highlight the need to consider phleboviruses in the differential diagnosis of febrile illnesses in Malaria-Negative patients and emphasize the importance of further epidemiological, molecular, and virological investigations to assess their distribution, burden, and public health impact. [J Microbiol Infect Dis 2026; 16(3.000): 150-155]

Background Patients with haematological disorders, such as sickle cell anaemia, are at an elevated risk of transient aplastic crisis due to parvovirus B19 infection. The virus targets specific integration sites in the human genome, disrupting cellular division. However, the molecular mechanisms of infection remain poorly understood. Aim This study aimed to determine the prevalence of human parvovirus B19 among patients with sickle cell anaemia in Khartoum State, Sudan. Methods Ninety patients (aged <5 to >15 years) with sickle cell disease attending Gaafer Ibnouaf Children’s Hospital between November 2016 and February 2017 were recruited. Sera and plasma samples were analyzed. IgG and IgM antibodies were measured using ELISA, and viral DNA was detected in plasma using nested-PCR. Phylogenetic analysis of sequenced B19 strains focused on the overlapping region of the minor (VP1) and major (VP2) capsid protein genes. Results Anti-parvovirus B19 IgG antibodies were detected in 57 of 90 patients (63.3%), while IgM antibodies were present in 7 (7.8%). Viral DNA was identified in 23 (25.5%) patients. Among the 23 DNA-positive patients, 7 (30%) were seronegative for both IgG and IgM antibodies, highlighting the importance of molecular diagnostics in identifying active infections, especially in early stages. Children under 5 years of age exhibited a higher nucleic acid detection rate compared to older age groups, suggesting the importance of molecular testing in younger patients particularly in the early detection of Parvovirus B19 during the acute phase of infection, before the body has developed detectable antibodies and also in immunocompromised children, who may not mount an antibody response detectable by serological methods. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two distinct Sudanese clusters: one (50% of sequences) formed a unique clade with low similarity to existing genotypes, while the other (50%) closely resembled genotype 1A sequences from Iraq, Iran, and Tanzania. Conclusion Parvovirus B19 antibodies and DNA were detected at high prevalence among Sudanese children with sickle cell anaemia. Screening for parvovirus B19 is critical for patients requiring blood transfusions, particularly those with haematological disorders. This study provides the first report of parvovirus B19 detection, sequencing, and characterization among Sudanese patients with sickle cell anaemia.

BackgroundRickettsial infections are often neglected and poorly recognized by physicians in many tropical and subtropical regions. Despite a number of recent reports describing rickettsial diseases in new locations and the discovery of new rickettsiae, medical science and research have largely neglected the diagnosis and antimicrobial treatment of rickettsial infections in subtropical and tropical areas; thus, much remains to be discovered. This study aimed to detect and characterize spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae in ixodid ticks infesting domestic ruminants in Khartoum State. MethodsPolymerase chain reaction targeting both genes that encode for citrate synthase (gltA) and outer membrane protein (ompA) was performed for the presence of SFG rickettsia followed by sequence and phylogenetic analysis. ResultsOf the 202 ticks examined for the presence of SFG rickettsia, gltA gene was detected in 4 samples (2%). Furthermore, gltA-positive samples were used to amplify the ompA gene, in which only two samples yielded positive results. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the positive samples revealed four different species of SFG rickettsiae: Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Rickettsia rhipicephali, Rickettsia massiliae and Rickettsia raoultii. ConclusionsThese results indicated the presence of SFG rickettsia in Sudanese ticks. This also indicates that humans have an opportunity to acquire these infections. It is important to keep in mind the need for careful consideration of rickettsial infections in individuals with a fever of unknown origin.

Introduction Diarrhea is a significant health problem in the Third World. Identification of the pathogen that causes diarrhea is vital for measures to prevent and control this disease. There are also very few reports of diarrhea in Sudan. Our study aimed to determine the Prevalence of specific protozoan pathogens (Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum., and Giardia spp) in children in Khartoum, Sudan. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey among children under five years of age who were hospitalized with acute diarrhea between April and December 2014. Diarrheal stool samples were collected and E. histolytica, C. parvum, and Giardia spp were examined using multiplex real-time PCR. Results Four hundred and thirty-seven children with acute diarrheawere included in this study; the higher Prevalence of diarrhea was in the age less than ≤ 2 years old (403,92.2%). The male-to-female ratio in this study was 1:1.7. infection with intestinal parasite was found in 155 (35.5%) cases, and co-infection was detected in 16 (10.3%) cases. Giardia spp(18.8%) and C. parvum (15.8 %) were the most frequently identified parasites, followed by E. histolytica (0.9). The parasite infection rate was highest and lowest in the under 2-year-old group (92.3%) and the 2–4-year-old group (7.3%). The infection rate was higher in boys (67.1%) than in girls (32.9%). The incidence of protozoan infection was higher in the rainy season (August to December) (92.2%), corresponding with that in the dry Season (April to June). (7.8%). Discussion Our present study demonstrated the high prevalence of Giardia spp and C. parvum in children with diarrhea in the Khartoum region and the usefulness of the multiplex real-time method in disclosing pathogenic protozoal agents. Our result highlighted the necessity of developing intervention measurement and control strategies to deal with childhood parasitic diarrhea in this region.

Introduction Diarrhea is a significant health problem in Third World. Identification the pathogen that cause diarrhea is vital for measures to prevent and control this disease. There are also very few reports of diarrhea in Sudan. Our study aimed to determine the Prevalenceof specific protozoan pathogens (Entameobia histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum., and Giardia lamblia) in children in Khartoum, Sudan. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey among children under five years of age hospitalized with acute diarrhea between April and December 2014. Diarrheastool samples were collected and examined E. histolytica, C. parvum, and G. lamblia using a multiplex real-time PCR. Results 437 acute children were included in this study; the higher Prevalence of diarrhea was in the age less than ≤2years old (403,92.2%). The male-to -female ratio in this study was 1:1.7. infection with intestinal parasite was found in 155 (35.5%) cases, and co-infection was detected in 16 (3.7%) cases. G. lamblia (18.8%) and C. parvum (15.8 %) were the most frequently identified parasites, followed by E. histolytica (0.9). The parasite infection rate was highest and lowest in the under 2-year-old group (32.7%), and in the 2–4-year-old group (2.7%),the infection rate was higher was higher in boys (23.7%) than in girls (11.7%). tThe incidence of protozoan infection was higher (37.7%) in the rainy season (August to December) (32.7%), corresponding with that in the dry Season (April to June). (2.7%) Discussion Our present study demonstrated the high prevalence of G. lamblia and C. parvum in children with diarrhea in Khartoum region and usefulness of the multiplex real-time method in disclosing pathogenic protozoal agents. Our result highlighted the necessity of developing intervention measurement and control strategies to deal with childhood parasitic diarrhea in this region.

Background Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an economically important infectious disease that is characterized by a variable course and insidious nature. A cross-sectional study was conducted in El Jazeera State, Central Sudan, to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of CBPP in cattle from seven localities. A total of 218 serum samples were randomly collected from apparently healthy cattle aged older than 6 months between April and May 2021 and were tested serologically using a commercial ELISA kit. Results The overall seroprevalence of CBPP was 50.5% (110/218). Univariate analysis showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) between sex, locality and water source and seropositivity to CBPP. Multivariate analysis revealed that the independent risk factors (sex, locality and water source) were also statistically significant (p < 0.05). At herd level, out of 20 herds 16 (80%) proved to be positive for CBPP antibodies. It is apparent from the present study that CBPP infection is prevalent among cattle in El Jazeera State, Central Sudan. Conclusions To the best of our knowledge, this is the first seroepidemiological study on CBPP infection in Central Sudan. The authors recommend major awareness both in the production area and quarantine centers, as CBPP may result in restrictions on the international trade of animals and animal products.

Background: This study was carried out to detect human Parainfluenza virus 'HPIV' RNA in patients with respiratory infections in Khartoum state in order to determine the circulating types of Parainfluenza virus 'in Khartoum state, Sudan. In addition, the study aimed to locally establish the diagnosis of parainfluenza virus using of RT-PCR. Methods: The study was conducted in Khartoum state Hospitals during the period from January 2019 to February 2021. Nasopharyngeal swabs samples were collected from 149 patients with respiratory symptoms. Samples were processed for RNA extraction and virus isolation. Extracted RNA was subjected to RT-PCR for the detection of Parainfluenza virus RNA and to further determine Parainfluenza virus serotypes. Positive samples were inoculated in chicken embryonated egg to isolate the virus. Results: Out of 149 samples 13 samples (8.7%) were positive and 136 samples (91.3%) were negative for parainfluenza virus RNA using RT-PCR. Parainfluenza types 1 and 2 were not detected while parainfluenza-3 was detected in 8 sample (5.4%) and parainfluenza-4 was positive in 5 samples (3.4%). Among PIV RNA positive samples (n=13); no virus was isolated using embryonated eggs inoculation. Conclusion: Existence and incidence of human parainfluenza virus and its types in Sudan was documented through detection of Human PIV(HPIV) RNA in respiratory samples. Moreover, the HPIV detection using RT-PCR was established. Keywords: Human Parainfluenza, Serotypes, RT-PCR, Emberyonated egg.

Introduction Diarrhea is a significant health problem in the Third World. Identification of the pathogen that causes diarrhea is vital for measures to prevent and control this disease. There are also very few reports of diarrhea in Sudan. Our study aimed to determine the Prevalence of specific protozoan pathogens (Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum., and Giardia spp) in children in Khartoum, Sudan. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey among children under five years of age hospitalized with acute diarrhea between April and December 2014. Diarrheal stool samples were collected, and E. histolytica, C. parvum, and Giardia spp were examined using multiplex real-time PCR. Results Four hundred and thirty-seven children with acute diarrhea were included in this study; the higher prevalence of diarrhea was in the age ≤ 2 years old (403, 92.2%), >2–≤4 years (32, 7.3%), and >4–<5 years (2, 0.5%). The male-to-female ratio in this study was 1:1.7. Infection with intestinal parasite was found in 155 (35.5%) cases, and co-infection was detected in 16 (3.7%) cases. Giardia spp (18.8%) and C. parvum (15.8%) were the most frequently identified parasites, followed by E. histolytica (0.9). The parasite infection rate was highest and lowest in the under 2-year-old group 143 (35.5%) and the 2–4-year-old group 12 (37.5%). The infection rate was higher in boys 104 (37.7%) than in girls 51 (31.7%). The number of positive cases was higher in the rainy season (August to December) 143 (37.4%), corresponding with that in the dry Season (April to June) 12 (21.8%). Discussion Our present study demonstrated the high prevalence of Giardia spp and C. parvum in children with diarrhea in the Khartoum region and the usefulness of the multiplex real-time method in disclosing pathogenic protozoal agents. Our result highlighted the necessity of developing intervention measurement and control strategies to deal with childhood parasitic diarrhea in this region.

Bluetongue (BT) is an arthropod-borne viral disease that primarily affects ruminants in tropical and temperate regions. In the present study, a cross-sectional survey was conducted to define the seroprevalence of Bluetongue virus and to identify the possible risk factors correlated with BTV seropositivity among cattle, sheep, and goats during the period 2015-2016 in Gadarif State. A total of 420 cattle, 877 sheep, and 641 goat serum samples were collected randomly from 12 localities. Information about age, sex, breed, area ecology, and location was obtained for each sample. Bluetongue seroprevalence was estimated using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). The overall seroprevalence of BTV was 92.9% (390/420), 76.4% (670/877), and 85.3% (547/641) among cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. Multivariate analysis followed univariate analysis showed that there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between location, area ecology and age groups of cattle, sheep, and goats, and seropositivity to BTV. In addition, a significant association (p<0.05) was observed between sex and seropositivity to BTV in sheep. In conclusion, BTV antibodies are highly prevalent in Gadarif State and susceptible livestock are at risk of exposition with BTV. Consequently, these animals have protection against specific BTV serotypes.

Background: Because of yellow fever’s serious impact on health, vaccination is the principal strategy to control the disease. Administration of the yellow fever vaccine to breastfeeding women should be before they complete 9 months post-delivery, in order to prevent transmission of the yellow fever vaccine virus to their infants through breast feeding. This study aimed to confirm whether the excretion of yellow fever vaccine virus is in milk of vaccinated breastfeeding mothers and to confirm the probable transmission to their infants through breast milk. Methods: Samples were taken as follows: one serum specimen was taken 3-14 days after the date of the vaccination, and breast milk specimens were taken at four different time points between 3-4 days apart. Specimens were obtained from eight nursing mothers, who received the YVF vaccine (17DD). Mothers were asymptomatic before and after the vaccine administration but their infants developed symptoms after administration. Maternal serum samples were tested for YFV specific IgM antibodies through immuno-fluorescent assay (IFA). RNA was extracted from serum and breast milk specimens and YFV RNA screened using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results: In total, five mothers (62.5%) were positive for YFV and two mothers (25%) had YFV RNA in serum. Among milk specimens, YFV RNA was detected during the four different mentioned collection times as follows (positive milk specimens/total milk specimens): 3/8 (37.5 %), 4/6 (66.6%) and 1/4(25%). RNA was completely undetectable in the last collection time. Conclusions: YFV transmission from mothers to their babies through breast-feeding was highly probable indicated by the temporal relationship to mother’s YF vaccination.

Background: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the most common causes of acute hepatitis. Sudan is considered as hyper-endemic for HEV. HEV infection in patients with preexisting chronic liver diseases (CLDs) has been reported to result in severe clinical manifestations and poor outcomes. However data on the role of HEV infection in worsening of pre-existing CLD are limited. Objective: To determine hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection and its effect on severity of CLD. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study that consecutively enrolled 87 CLD patients in Ibn-Sina Specialized Hospital was carried out during the period from August 2020 to December 2020. Data regarding demographics, CLD causes, clinical manifestations and comorbidities were collected. The screening for anti-HEV antibodies was performed in all patients by using enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA). Results: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) was the commonest etiology of chronic liver diseases being detected in 45/87(51.7%) patients. On the other hand;among all subjects; 43/87(49.4%) patients were HEV seropositive with anti-HEV Ig-G being detected in 32(36.8%) and concurrent anti-HEV Ig-M and Ig-G in 11(12.6%) patients. Jaundice (OR= 3.8, CI95%: 1.5-9.4; P. value=0.004), HCC (OR= 4.1, CI95%: 1.4-11.9; P. value=0.008), child-Pugh class-C (OR= 26, CI95%: 5.4-94.0; P. value=0.000) and child-Pugh class-B (OR= 5.3, CI95%: 1.6-17.0; P. value=0.000) were associated independently with anti-HEV positivity. Conclusion: The frequency of hepatitis E virus (HEV) among Sudanese patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) was considerably high (mainly past infection- Ig-G). Furthermore, HEV was associated with advanced liver failure statuses (child-Pugh class-B & C), jaundice, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

AbstractBackgroundToxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a zoonotic parasite that can be transmitted from animals to humans, with felids acting as its definitive host. Thus, understanding the epidemiology of this parasite in animal populations is vital to controlling its transmission to humans as well as to other animal groups.ObjectivesThis systematic review and meta‐analysis aims to summarise and analyse reports of T. gondii infection in animal species residing in the Arabian Peninsula.Methods: It was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA), with relevant studies being retrieved from MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar and ScienceDirect. All articles published in Arabic or English languages between January 2000 and December 2020 were screened for eligibility. Random effects model was used to calculate the pooled prevalence of T. gondii infection in different animal populations which were found to harbour this infection. The critical appraisal tool for prevalence studies designed by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) was used to assess the risk of bias in all included studies.ResultsA total of 15 studies were retrieved, reporting prevalence estimates from 4 countries in this region and in 13 animal species. Quantitative meta‐analysis estimated a pooled prevalence of 43% in felids [95% confidence interval (CI) = 23–64%, I2 index = 100%], 48% in sheep (95% CI = 27–70%, I2 = 99%) and 21% in camels (95% CI = 7–35%, I2 = 99%). Evidence of possible publication bias was found in both felids and sheep.ConclusionsThis meta‐analysis estimates a high prevalence of T. gondii infection in animal species which are of high economic and cultural importance to countries of this region. Hence, these findings provide valuable insight to public health authorities as well as economic and animal resources advisors in countries of the Arabian Peninsula.

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by pathogenic Leptospira bacterial species. It is tremendously neglected, and scarce epidemiological data is present worldwide. Aseptic meningitis is a rare secondary manifestation of Leptospira infection. Molecular detection of leptospira DNA in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples of children younger than two years is could be considered for diagnosis of aseptic meningitis.A total of 50 CSF samples suspected of aseptic meningitis were collected from pediatric patients ( [J Microbiol Infect Dis 2022; 12(1.000): 35-37]

(cid:1) Eleven animal species over 30 countries naturally contract SARS-CoV-2 infection. (cid:1) Minks establish anthropozoonosis to SARS-COV-2 infection. (cid:1) A lot is behind to reveal about SARS-CoV-2 at the human-animal interface.

Objective The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of coeliac disease (CD) and to recognise Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-associated hereditary susceptibility to Sudanese CD patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM1). Design Antitissue transglutaminase IgA (anti-TG IgA) was measured in the serum of 373 children affected with DM1 aged 1-19-year old and in 100 serum samples from non-diabetic control children. Histological examination was performed in 19 children seropositive for anti-TG IgA (17 DMI and 2 controls). Additionally, PCR-based analysis of Major histocompatibility complex, class II, DO beta 1 (HLA-DQB1) genotyping was implemented in three study population groups as follows: group 1 (n=25) (+ve DM1 and +ve CD), group 2 (n=63) (-ye DM1 and +ve CD) and control group 3 (n=2) (+ve CD). Results Twenty-six Sudanese children with DM1 out of 373 (6.97%) were seropositive for anti-TG IgA. Duodenal biopsy revealed Marsh 2 and 3 in 13 out of 17 (76.47%) seropositive anti-TG IgA patients with DM1. Significant association (p<0.05) was detected between the level of anti-TG IgA autoantibodies (IU/mL) and Marsh stage. HLA DQ2 and D08 were found in 88% (22/25) and 8% (2/25) of examined patients with CD with DM1, respectively. Conclusions Anti-TG IgA titre of greater than 10 times upper limit of normal (>= 10x ULN) can be useful for detecting CD in children with type 1 diabetes without duodenal biopsy. HLA testing in children with DM1 appears to provide little added benefit given the high prevalence (96%) of HLA DQ2/DQ8 in children with DM1.

Identification and control of viruses that causes diseases in human, domestic and wild animals represent continuous challenges to medical and veterinary sciences. Many diagnostic techniques have for a long time been used to identify individual infectious viral agents by their clinical signs , symptoms and histopathological changes produced in the susceptible host. But it is not always possible to identify or differentiate the disease on the basis of its signs symptoms and pathology, it thus requires use of other specific diagnostic procedures to clearly identify and confirm the pathogens These procedures involve both conventional as well as state of the art techniques. Several conventional techniques such as isolation in cell culture, serology for both antibody and antigen detection are traditionally used to identify viral pathogens. However, the rapid molecular detection techniques of infectious agents in animals as well as in environment have nowadays become an essential part of any modern diagnostic laboratory. Molecular diagnostic technologies are more advantageous as they offer more sensitive, less time consuming, with high throughput results and provide accurate diagnosis and provide thorough understanding of and discrimination of present and emerging diseases. In addition, these new tools can detect the presence of pathogen before the onset of clinical disease. Here we discuss some aspects of the current and contemplated diagnostic tools and their potential applications for diagnosis of viral diseases of domestic and wild animals in Qatar.

Background: Malaria and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) infections are recognized cofactors in the genesis of endemic Burkitt lymphoma, the most common pediatric cancer in equatorial Africa. Objective: To detect Epstein - Barr virus in malaria positive patients in Khartoum state Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Khartoum State hospitals during the period from April 2018 to April 2019. Fifty specimens from malaria positive patients (16 males and 34 females) were collected and tested by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of EBV. Results: Out of the 50 malaria positive patients samples tested by PCR, EBV was detected in 5 (10%) samples. Conclusion: The rate of EBV infection among Sudanese malaria patients was low (10 %, 5/50).

Background Bluetongue (BT) is a vector-borne viral disease of ruminant and camelid species which is transmitted by Culicoides spp. The causative agent of BT is bluetongue virus (BTV) that belongs to genus Orbivirus of the family Reoviridae . The clinical disease is seen mainly in sheep but mostly sub-clinical infections of BT are seen in cattle, goats and camelids. The clinical reaction of camels to infection is usually not apparent. The disease is notifiable to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), causing great economic losses due to decreased trade and high mortality and morbidity rates associated with bluetongue outbreaks. The objective of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of BTV in camels in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan and to identify the potential risk factors associated with the infection. A cross sectional study using a structured questionnaire survey was conducted during 2015–2016. A total of 210 serum samples were collected randomly from camels from 8 localities of Kassala State. The serum samples were screened for the presence of BTV specific immunoglobulin (IgG) antibodies using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Results Seropositivity to BTV IgG was detected in 165 of 210 camels’ sera accounting for a prevalence of 78.6%. Potential risk factors to BTV infection were associated with sex (OR = 0.061, p -value = 0.001) and seasonal river as water source for drinking (OR = 32.257, p -value = 0.0108). Conclusions Sex and seasonal river as water source for drinking were considered as potential risk factors for seropositivity to BTV in camels. The high prevalence of BTV in camels in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan, necessitates further epidemiological studies of BTV infection in camels and other ruminant species to better be able to control BT disease in this region.