Malaria remains a major health challenge in Angola, where Plasmodium falciparum accounts for most cases and deaths. Although artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) have been the recommended first-line treatments in the country since 2006, the emergence of resistance-associated mutations in Africa raises concerns. We conducted a systematic review of molecular markers of antimalarial drug resistance in Angola (2000–2024) to map their prevalence and distribution at the provincial level. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we searched PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science for studies on P. falciparum resistance markers: polymorphisms in pfcrt, pfdhfr, pfdhps, pfmdr1, pfk13, or copy number variation (CNV) in pfmdr1 and pfpm2/3. Data on mutations, prevalence, and geographic distribution was extracted and summarized. 20 studies met our inclusion criteria. The chloroquine-resistant pfcrt CVIET haplotype persisted in northern and coastal provinces, while the SP-resistant pfdhfr/pfdhps IRNGE haplotype was detected in Cabinda and Zaire. No validated pfk13 mutations linked to artemisinin resistance were reported. Pfmdr1 analyses showed declining 86Y and 1246Y mutation frequencies, with wild-type NYD and NFD haplotypes predominating. Low pfmdr1 and pfpm2 CNV prevalence was reported, though recent data indicate emerging amplification in southern Angola. Research was concentrated in Benguela, Luanda, Lunda Sul, and Zaire, leaving large geographic gaps country-wise. Resistance markers in Angola show heterogeneous provincial distribution. Expanded molecular surveillance, particularly in underrepresented provinces and among pregnant women, is critical to safeguard ACT efficacy and guide national malaria control strategies.

Abstract Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in livestock production systems represents a major One Health concern due to the potential transfer of resistant bacteria and resistance genes along the food chain and into the environment. This study investigated the occurrence of multidrug-resistant bacteria and associated antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in a pig production farm in Portugal. Samples were collected from slurry, animal skin swabs, feed, soil, and processed meat across three production batches. Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus, and Enterococcus isolates were recovered using selective media, identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and assessed for antimicrobial susceptibility using the disk diffusion method. ARGs were detected by multiplex PCR. Thirty-two isolates were identified, including Escherichia coli, Enterobacter spp., Kosakonia cowanii, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus borealis, Staphylococcus devriesei, Staphylococcus pasteuri, Enterococcus faecalis, and Enterococcus faecium. Tetracycline resistance was widespread across all genera, with frequencies of 56.3% in Enterobacteriaceae, 77.8% in Staphylococcus, and 66.7% in Enterococcus. Among E. coli, bla TEM variants and tet(A) were the most frequently detected resistance genes, alongside occasional sulfonamide (sul1, sul2) and AmpC (CIT) determinants. Staphylococcus isolates exhibited high rates of resistance to clindamycin, erythromycin, and chloramphenicol, supported by the presence of ermB, ermC, and blaZ. Enterococcus isolates carried pbp5 and erm genes. Overall, 76.6% of isolates showed Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Index values above 0.2, indicating high selective pressure within the farm environment. These findings demonstrate the circulation of multidrug-resistant bacteria and clinically relevant ARGs across the animal-environment interface, emphasizing the need for improved sanitation, responsible antibiotic use, and strengthened antimicrobial stewardship within pig production systems.

Raw meat can act as a reservoir and vehicle for antimicrobial-resistant foodborne Escherichia coli, particularly when sold under poor hygienic conditions, as is often the case in informal markets in many developing countries, thereby representing a significant public health risk. This study aimed to characterize the antibiotic resistance patterns and virulence of E. coli isolated from raw meat sold in informal markets in Luanda, Angola. A total of 99 E. coli isolates were recovered from fresh beef, pork and goat meat in five informal markets. DNA macrorestriction analysis by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) was used to evaluate the genetic diversity of isolates. Multiplex PCR was performed to detect virulent and antibiotic resistance genes. Antibiotic susceptibility was tested using the disk diffusion method. PFGE analysis showed high genotypic diversity. Virulence genes were found in 46% of the isolates, with astA (32.3%) being the most frequent. The results also showed high resistance to cefotaxime (67.7%), ampicillin (56.7%) and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (56.6%). Resistance to imipenem, a last-resort antibiotic, was observed in 30.3% of the isolates. The most prevalent resistance genes were CTX-M group 1 (10.1%) and FOX variants (27.3%). The presence of multidrug-resistant and potentially pathogenic E. coli strains in raw meat sold in informal markets in Luanda represents a significant threat to public health. These findings underscore the urgent need to improve surveillance, hygiene practices, and antimicrobial use regulation policies in animal production in Angola.

Introduction:Diabetic foot infection (DFI) represents a growing public health problem in Africa, caused by several microorganisms, with Staphylococcus aureus being one of the most prevalent pathogens associated with subsequent complications. This study aimed to characterize S. aureus isolated from the wounds of patients with type 2 diabetes, treated at a health center in Beira, Mozambique, in terms of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes. Methods:Samples were collected by swab, after ulcer debridement, and cultivated onto mannitol salt Columbia agar supplemented with 5% sheep blood, for 24 to 48 h, at 37°C. The antibiotic resistance was assessed by disk diffusion on Mueller-Hinton agar, and Multiplex PCR was used to screen 32 virulence and seven antibiotic resistance genes. Results:S. aureus isolates showed high phenotypic resistance to penicillin (100%), cefoxitin (53.3%), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (40%) and vancomycin (22.2%), and a high percentage of multidrug resistance (68.9%). The most prevalent resistance genes were blaZ (penicillin, 100%), mecA (cefoxitin, 53.3%) and vancA (vancomycin, 28.9%). The most frequent virulence genes were TSST (toxic syndrome staphylococcal toxin, 57.8%), and the colonization factor clfB (37.8%), followed by the Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PLV) genes, lukPV (26.7%) and lukED (15.6%). The regulator factor coded by arcA (37.8%) and the adhesion factors coded by cap5 (20%) and by icaA (17.8%) were also found. Conclusion:A high presence of virulence genes encoding exotoxins and colonization and adhesion factors, associated with a high rate of multidrug resistance, was found in S. aureus isolates. This anticipates increasing difficulty in treating DFI. The greatest resistance was to commonly used antibiotics, particularly penicillin, cefoxitin and vancomycin, with resistance genes, blaZ, mecA and vancA, frequently detected. This emphasizes the urgent need for improved antimicrobial stewardship, routine molecular surveillance, and improved management strategies for DFI in resource-limited settings to mitigate disease complications and reduce the burden of antimicrobial resistance.

Under the principles of the circular economy and sustainability, consumers, the food industry and health authorities have interest in new natural food preservatives to prevent foodborne diseases and increase produce shelf life. This work aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial properties of cowpea plant extracts. Grain, pod and leaf extracts from five Portuguese cowpea accessions were characterized in terms of their phenolic content. The values of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were determined against pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, as well as on post-harvest pathogenic filamentous fungi. In general, the phenolic content of pod extracts was higher than that of grains and leaves, although leaf extracts had the highest content of a broad-spectrum antibacterial flavonoid, quercetin. Grain extracts exhibited no detectable antimicrobial activity. In contrast, leaf and pod extracts from all five accessions generally displayed bactericidal effects. For bacteria, pod extracts showed MICs ranging from 5.1 to 87.7 mg/mL and MBCs from 20.3 to 87.7 mg/mL. Leaf extracts showed the most promising results, with MICs and MBCs ranging from 1.1 to 9.1 mg/mL. The results against fungi were not so expressive; nevertheless, P. expansum was inhibited by 9 L leaf extract even if at a higher concentration (MIC = 18 mg/mL) than those obtained for bacteria. The Portuguese variety Fradel (1E) showed very promising antibacterial activity, with leaf extracts showing low MBC values (from 2.3 to 9.1 mg/mL). The obtained results indicate that cowpea pods and leaves have antimicrobial properties and could potentially be used as a source of compounds for food preservation.

Consumption of contaminated meat and meat by-products has been associated with several foodborne outbreaks worldwide. Particularly in informal markets, poor hygiene during slaughter, transportation, and sale, as well as inadequate sanitation at points of sale and noncompliance with good hygiene practices, are major contributors. In this context, the five more representative markets in Luanda were selected (Catinton, Kifica, Benfica, Km30, and Kikolo). Three types of meat samples (beef, pork, and goat) were randomly collected in each market, totaling 130 meat samples. Meat was analyzed according to ISO guidelines for enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcus, and Escherichia coli (hygiene indicator) and detection of Salmonella (food safety indicator). In the selected markets, the sellers were characterized using observational methods and through sociographic questionnaires based on short interviews. These approaches showed that 61.2% of the sellers were young (20-30 years old), with 58.6% not having completed elementary education. More than 75% of the sellers had been working in this sector for less than 5 years, and most did not adhere to appropriate food safety practices when handling fresh meat. Unsatisfactory microbiological quality was found in all types of meat and markets. In the Benfica market, the detection of Salmonella raised significant concerns, with 100% of beef, 90% of pork, and 60% of goat meat samples testing positive. In the other four markets (Catinton, Kifica, Km30, and Kikolo), the level of contamination with E. coli was the main factor, leading to unsatisfactory results. Significant differences in microbiological indicators were observed between markets. Overall, the Kikolo market exhibited the highest levels of contamination. To our knowledge, studies on the microbiological quality and safety of fresh meat sold in informal markets in Angola are few or nonexistent. Therefore, the findings of the present study provide critical insights that could contribute to mitigating the risk of contamination of fresh meat with pathogenic microorganisms, with the concomitant possibility of foodborne outbreaks in Luanda. There is an urgent need to invest in adequate infrastructure for the sale of fresh meat, such as covered buildings with piped drinking water, sewage, and refrigeration systems, as well as training sellers in good handling practices (GHPs) and good manufacturing practices (GMPs).

Malaria continues to be a significant public health burden in many tropical and subtropical regions. Mozambique ranks among the top countries affected by malaria, where it is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, accounting for 29% of all hospital deaths in the general population and 42% of deaths amongst children under five. This review presents a comparative analysis of data on five critical genes associated with antimalarial drug resistance: pfmdr1, pfcrt, pfk13, pfdhfr, and pfdhps, along with the copy number variation (CNV) in genes pfmdr1 and pfpm2/3. These are genes associated with parasite response to antimalarials currently used to treat uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria in Mozambique. The review synthesizes data collected from published studies conducted in Mozambique after the introduction of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) (2006) up to June 2024, highlighting the presence or absence of mutations in these genes across Mozambique. We aimed at mapping the prevalence and distribution of these molecular markers across the country in order to contribute to the development of targeted interventions to sustain the efficacy of malaria treatments in Mozambique. Four databases were used to access the articles: PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google scholar. The search strategy identified 132 studies addressing malaria and antimalarial resistance. Of these, 112 were excluded for various reasons, leaving 20 studies to be included in this review. Children and pregnant women represent the majority of target groups in studies on all types of antimalarials. Most studies (87.5%) were conducted in the provinces of Maputo and Gaza. The primary alleles reported were pfcrt CVMNK, and in the most recent data, its wild-type form was found in the majority of patients. A low prevalence of mutations in the pfk13 gene was identified reflecting the effectiveness of ACTs. In pfk13, only mutation A578S was reported in Niassa and Tete. CNVs were observed in studies carried out in the south of Mozambique, with a frequency of 1.1–5.1% for pfmdr1 and a frequency of 1.1–3.4% for pfpm2. This review indicates that molecular markers linked to malaria resistance show considerable variation across provinces in Mozambique, with most up-to-date data accessible for Maputo and Gaza. In contrast, provinces such as Zambezia and Inhambane have limited data on several genes, while Nampula lacks data on all drug resistance markers.

This study aimed to evaluate the microbiome, resistome and virulome of two types of Portuguese cheese using high throughput sequencing (HTS). Culture-dependent chromogenic methods were also used for certain groups/microorganisms. Eight samples of raw ewe’s milk cheese were obtained from four producers: two producers with cheeses with a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) label and the other two producers with cheeses without a PDO label. Agar-based culture methods were used to quantify total mesophiles, Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, Enterococcus and lactic acid bacteria. The presence of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella was also investigated. The selected isolates were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and evaluated to determine antibiotic resistance and the presence of virulence genes. The eight cheese samples analyzed broadly complied with EC regulations in terms of the microbiological safety criteria. The HTS results demonstrated that Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Enterococcus durans and Lactobacillus coryniformis were the most prevalent bacterial species in cheeses. The composition of the bacterial community varied, not only between PDO and non-PDO cheeses, but also between producers, particularly between the two non-PDO cheeses. Alpha-diversity analyses showed that PDO cheeses had greater bacterial diversity than non-PDO cheeses, demonstrating that the diversity of spontaneously fermented foods is significantly higher in cheeses produced without the addition of food preservatives and dairy ferments. Despite complying with microbiological regulations, both PDO and non-PDO cheeses harbored potential virulence genes as well as antibiotic resistance genes. However, PDO cheeses exhibited fewer of these virulence and antibiotic resistance genes compared to non-PDO cheeses. Therefore, the combination of conventional microbiological methods and the metagenomic approach could contribute to improving the attribution of the PDO label to this type of cheese.

Fermented foods, particularly fermented dairy products, offer significant health benefits but also present serious concerns. Probiotic bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB), found in these foods have been strongly linked to the selection and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This study aims to examine the potential risks associated with fermented foods, despite their importance in human nutrition, by analyzing the entire production chain from raw material acquisition to storage. Focusing on cheese production as a key fermented food, the study will investigate various aspects, including dairy farm management, milk acquisition, milk handling, and the application of good manufacturing practices (GMP) and good hygiene practices (GHP) in cheese production. The findings of this review highlight that ARGs found in LAB are similar to those observed in hygiene indicator bacteria like E. coli and pathogens like S. aureus. The deliberate use of antibiotics in dairy farms and the incorrect use of disinfectants in cheese factories contribute to the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in cheeses. Cheese factories, with their high frequency of horizontal gene transfer, are environments where the microbiological diversity of raw milk can enhance ARG transfer. The interaction between the raw milk microbiota and other environmental microbiotas, facilitated by cross-contamination, increases metabolic communication between bacteria, further promoting ARG transfer. Understanding these bacterial and ARG interactions is crucial to ensure food safety for consumers.

Salmonellosis, an infectious disease caused by the Salmonella species, encompasses a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from mild self-limiting gastroenteritis to severe systemic infections. It affects millions of people annually, causing immense morbidity and economic losses worldwide. This study aims to evaluate the occurrence of Salmonella in water and raw foods, focusing on meat, fish, shellfish, and vegetables consumed in the city of Nampula, north of Mozambique. A total of 81 samples of meat, fish and shellfish, vegetables, and water were collected from nine of the ten municipal markets in Nampula City. Salmonella detections were performed according to ISO 6579-1. A chi-square test was performed in the Python programming language to detect associations between positive samples and market localization. The results showed a high frequency of Salmonella. From the total sample, 38.5% were Salmonella positive. Fresh vegetables were the most contaminated samples, followed by fish, shellfish, raw meat, and water. The outcomes of this study did not find an association between the sample collection location and the test results for Salmonella. In this study, serovars of Salmonella were not identified which hinders the association of Salmonella occurrence with diseases. Consequently, we propose that the next study should focus on detecting the serotypes of Salmonella strains.

The sale of ready-to-eat (RTE) street food represents an important source of income in many developing countries. However, these foods are frequently implicated in outbreaks of gastrointestinal diseases. Street food vendors face several constraints that hamper improvement in the microbiological quality of their products. The aim of this review was to update knowledge about the main causes of foodborne illnesses in developing countries, including the growing concern with the microbial transmission of antibiotic resistance. Following PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review was conducted on original articles published from January 2010 to July 2023. The search was carried out using Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, Food Science and Technology Abstracts (FSTA), the International Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS), as well as isolated searches of relevant articles from Google Scholar. The initial search identified 915 articles, 50 of which were included in this systematic review. The results indicate that, in the majority of the 15 countries examined, women constitute the predominant segment of street food vendors, representing more than 55% of the total number of these vendors. In 11 countries, street food vendors under the age of 18 were identified. Most vendors had a low level of education and, consequently, were unaware of good hygiene practices when handling food. The combination of factors such as poor hygiene practices on the part of food handlers and the lack of facilities, namely, the absence of available potable water, were frequently listed as the main causes of food contamination. Enterobacteriaceae such as Escherichia coli (61.9%), Salmonella (30.1%), and Shigella spp. (9.5%), as well as Staphylococcus aureus (30.1%) and Listeria monocytogenes (14.3%), were the most common pathogens found in RTE street foods. In 22 studies from 13 developing countries, 59% (13/22) reported high multidrug resistance in Enterobacteriaceae (40% to 86.4% in E. coli, 16.7 to 70% in Salmonella, and 31 to 76.4% in S. aureus). To address the challenges faced by street vendors and improve their economic activities, it is necessary for government entities, consumers, and vendors to work together collaboratively.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the biofilm-forming ability and the resistance of planktonic cells and biofilm to methicillin (MIC and MBC, and log CFU/cm2 reduction, respectively). Thirty-four isolates were used, including coagulase-positive Staphylococcus (CPS) and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CNS), recovered from ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. Biofilm-forming ability was based on enumeration of viable cells from biofilms formed on three types of surfaces, namely stainless steel, polystyrene, and glass. Thirteen of the thirty-four isolates (38.2%) were methicillin-resistant (MIC higher than 4 µg/mL). Staphylococcus aureus (CPS) and Staphylococcus saprophyticus (CNS) were the species that showed the highest percentage of resistance (50% and 71.4%, respectively). Staphylococcus warneri was the only species susceptible to methicillin. In 20 of the 34 isolates, the MBC value was twice the MIC value. The CPS (S. aureus) and the CNS (the other species) were not significantly different (p > 0.05) on biofilm-forming ability on the three surfaces used. However, when comparing the averages obtained for the biofilm-forming ability of the isolates, the values obtained (log CFU/cm2) in polystyrene were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those obtained with the isolates on stainless steel. On the other hand, data from biofilm-forming ability of the isolates on glass and stainless steel are positively and significantly correlated with each other (r = 0.54; p = 0.02). It was not possible to determine the concentration of methicillin that promotes biofilm removal since log reductions were less than 3 log CFU/cm2. The results of this study indicate that foodborne CPS and CNS can form biofilms on different types of material. As these biofilms are resistant to high concentrations of methicillin, their occurrence in food environments and their spread to medical settings can result in staphylococcal food poisoning or, in the worst-case scenario, septicemia, respectively. Good hygiene and good manufacturing practices (GHP and GMP) are therefore mandatory to prevent contamination with Staphylococcus spp.

This study aimed to investigate enterococci recovered from eight Portuguese cheeses made with raw ewe’s milk, regarding antibiotic resistance, virulence genes, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of benzalkonium chloride (BAC), biofilm formation capacity, and biofilm eradication (MBEC) by BAC. Antimicrobial resistance against seven antibiotics of five groups was evaluated using the disk diffusion method. The presence of the genes that encode resistance to the antibiotics penicillin (blaZ), erythromycin (ermA, ermB, and ermC), vancomycin (vanA and vanB), aminoglycoside (aac(6′)-Ie-aph(2″)-Ia), and β-lactam (pbp5) and the genes that encode virulence factors, frsB, cylA, gelE, esp, and agg, were investigated via multiplex PCR. The susceptibility of planktonic cells to BAC was evaluated by the MIC and MBC values of the isolates, using the broth microdilution method. To assess the biofilm-forming ability and resistance of biofilms to BAC, biofilms were produced on stainless steel coupons, followed by exposure to BAC. The results showed a high resistance to the antibiotics vancomycin (87.5%), erythromycin (75%), tetracycline (50%), and penicillin (37.5%). Multidrug resistance was observed in 68.8% of the isolates. Genes encoding the virulence factors FrsB (frsB) and gelatinase E (gelE) were detected in all isolates. The esp and cylA genes were found in 56.3% and 37.5% of the isolates, respectively. All isolates exhibited a biofilm-forming ability, regardless of incubation time and temperature tested. However, after 72 h at 37 °C, E. faecium and E. faecalis biofilms showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Although most isolates (62.5%) were susceptible to BAC (MIC ≤ 10 mg/L), biofilms of the same isolates were, generally, resistant to the higher concentration of BAC (80 mg/mL) tested. This study using Enterococcus isolates from a ready-to-eat food, such as cheese, reveals the high percentages of vancomycin resistance and multidrug resistance, associated with the presence of virulence genes, in isolates also capable of producing biofilms resistant to BAC, an important active ingredient of many disinfectants. These results emphasize the need for effective control measures to ensure the safety and quality of dairy products.

In recent years awareness of the impacts of intensive agriculture on soil quality and its impacts on the environment has increased. This paradigm increased interest in biological products. In this context, the present trial was conducted to evaluate the performance of two organic fertilizers on onion and turnip crop yield grown in greenhouse. We used two kinds of organic fertilizers made in Portugal, a compost and a chicken manure evaluated in two plant species: onion (Allium cepa L.) and turnip (Brassica rapa L.). Both experiments consisted in a completely randomized design, with the same treatments which are: control (zero application), 1 kg/m2 of compost, 2 kg/m2 of compost, 3 kg/m2 of compost, 5 kg/m2 of compost, 2.65 kg/m2 of chicken manure, 5.3 kg/m2 of chicken manure, 10 kg/m2 of chicken manure, 15.9 kg/m2 of chicken manure, 21.2 kg/m2 of chicken manure. For turnip the evaluated traits were plant weight (Pw), plants length (Pl), number of leaves, and for onion were as follows: plant weight, bulb yields, and bulbs diameter. This study concludes that chicken manure in the dose of 2.65 kg/m2 application represents a sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers, mainly in the current challenging situation of agriculture in the context of climate change.

This study aims to evaluate the resistance profile and the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes in 30 isolates of Klebsiella spp. and Aeromonas spp. recovered from water sold in the streets of Maputo. Susceptibility profiles to 15 antibiotics were performed according to Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute guidelines with antibiotic disks on Mueller-Hinton agar plates. Multiplex PCRs were performed targeting 10 ß-lactamase genes, five ESBL (blaTEM-variants, blaOXA-variants, BlaSHV-variants, MCTX-M Group 1 and Group 9 variants) and five AmpC (ACC variants, FOX variants, MOX variants, CIT variants and DHA variants). The results showed a high prevalence of Klebsiella resistance to ß-lactam antibiotics, such as amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (62.5%), amoxicillin (56.3%), ampicillin (50%), cefoxitin (43.8%), and cefotaxime (43.8%). Aeromonas showed resistance to cefoxitin and ampicillin (71.4%), amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (57.1%) and imipenem (42.9%). ESBL blaOXA-variants, blaSVH-variants, MCTX-M Group 1 variants, and MCTX-M Group 9 variants were the most prevalent b-lactam genes, followed by the b-lactams AmpC, ACC variants and FOX variants. It is extremely important to improve waterborne disease control strategies, especially in terms of public awareness of the potential health implications of multidrug-resistant strains of Klebsiella and Aeromonas, which are often neglected.

Typhoid fever (TF) typically manifests itself as prolonged high fever, relative bradycardia, splenomegaly, and abdominal symptoms.Socioeconomic factors, including educational level, poor sanitation and hygiene conditions,, social assistance, access to safe food, and misuse of antibiotics contribute to the dissemination and persistence of Salmonella infections in urban, suburban, and rural areas.The combination of these factors creates conditions for the permanent occurrence of TF, which is the most common cause of hospitalization and death in low incoming countries.This study aimed to assess the relationships between the risk factor and TF occurrence.The systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines and submitted for registration at the International Prospective Register of Ongoing Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO).A literature search was conducted using MEDLINE/PUBMED (National Library of Medicine), MEDLINE (Bireme), Science Direct and B-on databases, between June and August of 2022.Of 2,246 articles, 42 were included.Of these studies, 24 were included in the systematic review, and 9 were included in the meta-analysis.The prevalence of Typhoid fever ranged between 1.1% and 93%.The factors associated with TF were as follows: contaminated food, untreated drinking water, incorrect hygiene practices, contact with someone who had TF, a lack of knowledge about TF, living in a refugee camp or nearby.There was a clear association between TF and contaminated food, untreated drinking water, incorrect hygiene practices, contact with someone who had TF, a lack of knowledge of TF, and living under inadequate conditions.

Food poisoning by staphylococcal enterotoxins (SE) is a major cause of foodborne illness, often associated with coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS). The increase in the number of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains is another major problem associated with CPS. However, reports of the association of SE and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are beginning to re-emerge. In this context, the aim of this study is to investigate the presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin genes and to characterize the phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance in 66 isolates of Staphylococcus spp. (47 CNS and 19 CPS) recovered from ready-to-eat (RTE) street food sold in Maputo, Mozambique. Seven virulence genes encoding SE (sea, seb, sec, sed and see) and two toxins (hlb and sak) were screened by multiplex PCR (MPCR). Antimicrobial resistance against 12 antibiotics was evaluated by the disk diffusion method. The presence of genes encoding resistance to penicillin, methicillin, vancomycin and erythromycin (blaZ, mecA, vancA, vancB, ermA, ermB and ermC) were also screened by PCR. At least one of the seven virulence genes assessed in this study was detected in 57.9% and 51% of CPS and CNS isolates, respectively. In CPS isolates, the most frequent gene was hlb (47.4%), followed by sec (15.8%) and sea, seb and sed genes with 5.3% each. In CNS isolates, the most frequent gene was sec (36.2%) followed by sak (17%), hlb (14.9%), sed (12.8%) and seb (6.4%). Five of the twelve CPS in which virulence genes were detected were also antibiotic-resistant. All the CNS isolates harboring virulence genes (n = 27, 57.4%) were antimicrobial-resistant. The prevalence of multidrug resistance was higher (59.6%) in CNS than in CPS (26.3%) isolates. Regarding the presence of antibiotic-resistance genes, blaZ (penicillin-resistant) was the most frequent in both CPS (42.1%) and CNS (87.2%), followed by the mecA (encoding methicillin resistance) and vancA genes (vancomycin-resistant), which represented 36.8% and 31.6% in CPS isolates and 46.8% in CNS isolates, respectively. The prevalence of vancomycin-resistant staphylococci has been increasing worldwide and, to our knowledge, this is the first study to report the occurrence of vancomycin-resistant staphylococci in Mozambique. These results emphasize the need to investigate CNS isolates in parallel with CPS, as both constitute public health hazards, given their potential to produce SE and spread antimicrobial resistance genes.