The aim of the study was to gather information from the literature on the use of Intermittent Pneumatic Compression (compression boots) as a recovery method after exercise. A database search methodology, just in English, was used for the review from 2000 to 2021. In this review a total of 354 studies were found which, after applying inclusion items, such as the need for a recovery method as a means of comparison, and exclusion and analysis of abstracts and full text, reached a total of 6 studies. An analysis of the studies was carried out in relation to the sample studied, the compression boots intervention protocol, the recovery methods used as a comparison, the physiological stress agent and the variables analysed and their responses. The results found showed no significant difference in the comparison between the recovery methods that indicate a superiority or inferiority for the use of compression boots. A low number of evidence was observed so that one could have a definitive position regarding the use of compression boots as a recovery method, even though the lack of positive responses and divergences regarding the use of this methodology are evident. There's still a gap to understand compression boots as recovery, even with positive responses from empiric knowledge.

Falls among older persons are a major public health concern because they can result in serious injuries, decreased mobility, and higher healthcare expenses. Currently, there is a trend toward the development of new health-related device technologies (DTs) to assess the risk of falls in older persons. In this sense, identifying and summarising the most current and innovative devices that fall under the “new devices” category emerges as a practical strategy to assess the risk of experiencing accidents. In this sense, the purpose of this scoping review protocol is to describe the methods that will be used to map and summarise the current state of the art regarding the new DTs designed to predict the risk of falls associated with gait patterns in older adults. This strategy will aid health professionals and other interested parties in implementing multifaceted intervention programmes that are more individualised and innovative. Furthermore, this findings will provide valuable insights for evidence-based practice and contribute to achieving the objective of Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3), which aims to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for people of all ages, and SDG 9—which focuses on building resilient infrastructure, promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and fostering innovation.

One of the faces of frail older individuals is the severe decline in sensory-neuro-motor functions. This decline may be related to hormonal markers, considering the relationships between the imbalance of neuroendocrine markers that occur with advancing age and the loss of neuromotor functions. This study was to explore the associations between gait speed, hormone levels, and cognitive abilities. A total of 135 physically frail older women (83.95 ± 7.21 years) participated in this study, as determined by the Fried Frailty Index. Salivary levels of testosterone and cortisol were collected following standardized procedures. Cognitive abilities were assessed using verbal fluency and velocity-sensory-motor perception (symbol modalities) tests. Gait speed was measured using the 2.44 stand-up-from-chair walking test. The results indicated that individuals with higher walking speeds demonstrated better performance in the verbal fluency and symbol modalities tests, along with lower levels of salivary cortisol and testosterone. Gait speed was moderately correlated with cognitive skills and biomarkers. Understanding the interplay between these variables is crucial for developing interventions that promote healthy aging of frail older individuals. Furthermore, this findings will provide valuable insights for evidence-based practice and contribute to achieving the objective of Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG’s 3), which aims to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for people of all ages. Further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms driving these associations and to explore the potential of interventions targeting hormonal imbalances and physical fitness to mitigate cognitive and physical frailty.

The use of saliva to monitor immune and hormonal responses in training, competitions, and during recovery is an easy and non-invasive alternative means of collecting samples compared to serum collection. Saliva can provide insight into a number of interesting biomarkers such as cortisol, testosterone, immunoglobulins, alpha-amylase, and melatonin, among others. High-intensity and exhaustive exercises, such as training or competition, provide variations in immune, protein and hormonal markers. An adequate recovery period, calming down, and recovery methods can contribute to a fast normalization of these markers, decreasing illness, as well as the likelihood of overtraining and injuries, but their effectiveness is still inconclusive. The aim of this review was to investigate the evidence of salivary markers in post-exhaustive exercise during the recovery period. This study is a systematic review from three electronic databases with studies from 2011 to 2021 within healthy humans. The search found 213 studies, and after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, while excluding duplicated studies, 14 studies were included in this review. The most cited salivary markers were cortisol and testosterone, as well as their ratio, alpha-amylase and IgA. Half of the studies applied a variety of recovery methods that showed controversial results over salivary markers' impact. However, they showed an impact on the markers from the exercise, which was still dependent on exercise intensity, methodology, and duration.

The effectiveness of Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) supplementation on enhancing exercise performance in both young and older adults remains a topic of debate. Recent research suggests that BCAAs combined with regular exercise might have an impact on human erythropoiesis, blood dynamics, and iron homeostasis. Given the increasing longevity of the global population, it is crucial to investigate the potential benefits of BCAA supplementation and regular exercise as non-pharmacological interventions for improving the overall health of frail older adults. To assess the influence of a 40-week multicomponent exercise intervention (MEP) combined BCCA supplementation on the haematological indicators of frail older adults (83-93 years old) residing in nursing homes. A prospective, naturalistic, controlled clinical trial employing an intervention-washout-intervention was conducted for this purpose. The study included four experimental groups: MEP plus BCAA supplementation (MEP + BCAA, n = 8), MEP only (n = 7), BCAA supplementation only (n = 7), and control group non exercising (CG, n = 13). Fried's physical frailty (PF) protocol was employed to stratify the participants. Additionally, the assessment included the evaluation of nutritional status, comorbidities, and anthropometric measurements. Among the several haematological markers examined, only mean cellular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCH) [F = 4.09; p < 0.03] and Mean Cell haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) [F = 10, 323; p < 0,0001] showed significant effects of time group. Our findings demonstrate that a long-term intervention with BCAA plus MEP did not lead to significant alterations in the haematological profile. An 8-week withdrawal from interventions did not affect the frailty status in the MEP and MEP + BCAA groups, whereas the control group exhibited an increase in PF status. The findings, demonstrating the potential pro-immune effect and maintenance of MCH and MCHC levels, highlight the relevance of incorporating exercise and nutritional strategies to promote healthy aging. This study contributes to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 3 (good health and well-being) and 10 (reduced Inequalities) for all.

Several systematic review studies highlight exercise’s positive impact on brain health outcomes for frail individuals. This study adopts a Comprehensive Review of reviews (CRs) approach to amalgamate data from existing reviews, focusing on exercise’s influence on brain health outcomes in older frail and pre-frail adults. The methodology involves a thorough search of Portuguese, Spanish, and English-indexed databases (i.e., Ebsco Health, Scielo, ERIC, LILACS, Medline, Web of Science, SportDiscus) from 1990 to 2022, with the AMSTAR-2 tool assessing evidence robustness. The search terms “physical exercise”, “elderly frail”, and “systematic review” were employed. Results: Out of 12 systematically reviewed studies, four presented high-quality (with metanalyses), while eight exhibit critically low quality. Positive trends emerge in specific cognitive and neuromotor aspects, yet challenges persist in psychosocial domains, complex cognitive tasks, and ADL outcomes. This study yields reasonable and promising evidence regarding exercise’s influence on quality of life and depression in frail older individuals. However, the impact on biochemical markers remains inconclusive, emphasizing the need for standardized methodologies. Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of acknowledging methodological nuances for clinicians and policymakers when translating these results into impactful interventions for aging populations. This emphasizes the necessity for a comprehensive and customized approach to exercise interventions aimed at fostering the sustainability of overall well-being in older individuals, aligning with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 3.

Cognition includes all processes through which a person becomes aware of their situation, needs, goals, and necessary actions. Regular specialized cognitive and neuromotor simulation exercises have improved various cognitive processes, including memory, speed of reasoning, and problem-solving skills. This review focuses on understanding the efficacy of long-term multicomponent exercise interventions to mitigate and delay the effects on cognitive abilities in older adults with neurodegenerative disorders. The main criteria for final studies were randomised controlled trials with a minimum of a 24-week intervention. The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, SCOPUS, B-On, Sport Discus, Scielo, APA PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Academic Search Complete, Medline (PubMed), ERIC, and Google Scholar databases were checked. The search occurred between April 2022 and July 2022. A total of 19 studies were used in this review. The initial search identified 6.835 studies. In the first screening, a total of 6474 studies were excluded. After this, 361 studies were analysed by co-authors and did not meet the specific final criteria and were excluded. In total, 19 studies were included in the final analysis, and 14 papers met all requirements previously defined.

Age-related decreases in muscle function lead to disabilities and are associated with negative health outcomes in older people. Although several physical tests can be used to assess physical performance, muscle strength, and power, their interpretation can be hampered by the ceiling effect of some of them. The aim of this study was to assess whether vertical jump tests are safe in terms of physical integrity and whether they are useful in assessing physical performance in forty-one robust older women. The investigation entailed an assessment of anthropometric characteristics, physical functioning tests (Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB), sit-to-up 5 times and sit-to-up 30 s, gait speed, time-up-to-go test (TUGT)), and tests evaluating muscle strength and power (handgrip, lower limb isokinetic tests, and vertical jumping tests). Significant negative correlations were found between vertical jumping tests and BMI, body fat percentage, sit-to-up 5 times and TUGT. In addition, significant positive correlations were observed between vertical jumping tests and SPPB, gait speed, handgrip, and concentric isokinetic tests of knee muscles. No adverse events in volunteers' physical integrity were reported during and after the performance of all physical tests. Thus, the study results showed that vertical jumping tests are safe and accurate for assessing physical performance and are useful for monitoring age-related loss of muscle performance in robust older women.

BACKGROUND:Because the consequences of the lifestyle changes in older adults associated with the social isolation imposed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic are not fully understood, here, we investigated the effects of one year of social isolation imposed by COVID-19 on the metabolic parameters and functional physical capacity of older women who regularly practiced physical exercises before the pandemic.METHODS:Systemic lipid and protein profiles, estimated creatinine clearance (ECC), and functional physical capacity (FPC) were assessed before (January-February 2020) and 12 months after social isolation in 30 older women (mean age 73.77 ± 6.22) who were engaged in a combined-exercise training program for at least 3 years before the COVID-19 pandemic.RESULTS:In this group, we observed increased plasma levels of triglycerides and creatinine, an increase in the time necessary to perform gait speed and time-up-and-go tests, and reduced muscle strength assessed by the handgrip test and ECC post-COVID-19 pandemic relative to values recorded pre-pandemic. In addition, we observed significant correlations (both negative and positive) between anthropometric, some metabolic parameters, and physical tests.CONCLUSION:One year of interruption of physical exercise practice imposed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic significantly altered some systemic metabolic parameters and worsened ECC and FPC in older women.

Physical inactivity and low levels of muscle strength can lead to the early development of sarcopenia and dynapenia, which may increase the number and risk of falls in the elderly population. Meanwhile, exercise programs can stop or even revert the loss of muscle mass, strength, power, and functional capacity and consequently decrease the risk of falls in older adults. However, there is a lack of studies investigating the effect of strengthening programs in octogenarians. The present study investigates the effects of 40 weeks of a training-detraining-retraining cycle of muscle strength exercise program on postural stability and estimated fall risk in octogenarians. Twenty-seven institutionalized participants were allocated into two groups: the muscular strength exercise group (MSEG, n = 14) and control group (CG, n = 13). After the first training period, the MSEG improved postural stability and decreased the estimated fall risk by 7.9% compared to baseline. In comparison, CG worsened their stability and increased their risk of falling by more than 17%. No significant changes were found between groups in the detraining and the retraining period. This study demonstrated that strength exercise effectively improved postural control and reduced fall risk scores. In addition, the interventions were able to reduce the forward speed of postural control deterioration in octogenarians, with great increments in the first months of exercise.

Exercise-based interventions emerged as the best alternative for treating frailty syndrome (FS). Recognized as a complex phenotype, the FS is a multifaceted aging expression determined by biologic, environment, and behaviors factors. The biological theories of human development perceive aging process as an accumulation of harmful biochemical changes, whose occurrence attends the course of life. The progressive losses of functional reserves that occur in the body systems are a hallmark of this negative process. Despite the biological effects of physical and cognitive decline, more contemporary studies have identified that the environmental and behavior factors such as malnutrition and negative psychological adjustment across the life span also contribute to the early appearance of FS. Notwithstanding the latest findings that consistently demonstrate an overall positive benefit of long-term-based exercise in the decrease and/or reversal of the FS with a substantial impact on their correlated outcomes, the focus of this chapter is to present strategies for designing exercise programs for this type of population, taking into account their practical application in the field.

This review outlines the various factors associated with unhealthy aging which includes becoming frail and dependent. With many people not engaging in recommended exercise, facilitators and barriers to engage with exercise must be investigated to promote exercise uptake and adherence over the lifespan for different demographics, including the old, less affluent, women, and those with different cultural-ethnic backgrounds. Governmental and locally funded public health messages and environmental facilitation (gyms, parks etc.) can play an important role. Studies have shown that exercise can act as a conductor to balance oxidative stress, immune and endocrine functions together to promote healthy aging and reduce the risk for age-related morbidities, such as cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis, and promote cognition and mood over the lifespan. Like a classic symphony orchestra, consisting of four groups of related musical instruments - the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings - the aging process should also perform in harmony, with compassion, avoiding the aggrandizement of any of its individual parts during the presentation. This review discusses the wide variety of molecular, cellular and endocrine mechanisms (focusing on the steroid balance) underlying this process and their interrelationships.

Background: The ageing process implies several physiological and psychological changes that hence affect the general health, mood states, and quality of life of older persons. Exercise and adequate nutrition are renowned non-pharmacological strategies that significantly delay and alleviate the adverse consequences of the ageing process. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) supplementation and a multicomponent exercise program (ME) on the physical frailty and mood states of older persons. Methods: 35 participants (women and men; 83 +/- 3 years old) from residential care homes were submitted to a 40week exercise-washout-retraining intervention (16 weeks of the elastic band based exercise and/or supplementation, 8 weeks of washout, and 16 weeks of multicomponent exercise and/or resupplementing), with or without BCAA supplementation. The experimental groups were: (i) ME plus BCAA supplementation (ME+BCAA); (ii) ME; (iii) BCAA supplementation (BCAA), and (iv) control group (CG). Fried's phenotype was used to assess frailty prevalence. Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), Profile of Mood State (POMS), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), were used to access mental health and cognition. The Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) was used to access functional capacity. Salivary testosterone levels (ST) were also determined to access the anabolic effects of the intervention. Results: Exercise was effective in improving functional capacity and prevented the increase in frailty that occurred in the non-exercising CG, where the frailty scores increased over time (p < 0.01). BCAAs supplement alone had no impact on functional fitness, but in a short time (16 weeks) contributed to diminishing frailty and combined with exercise may have the potential to reduce the effect of a detraining period on functional capacity. Salivary testosterone levels correlated with handgrip strength and could be a useful indicator of susceptibility to frailty. No effects were found for mood states, cognition, and depression. Conclusion: This study showed that a long-term exercise program, independent of being multicomponent or strength elastic band-based, was effective in improving functional capacity and prevented an increase in frailty in frail and pre-frail older persons living in residential care homes.

This chapter presents an exploratory review on the evaluation, assessment, and monitoring in health and fall risk by common and the most used assessment tools. The main discussion of this chapter of evaluation in health and fall risk is divided into six categories—global health assessment, specific physical (and fitness) assessment, cognitive and psychological assessment, pharmacological assessment, fall risk specific assessment, and some complementary assessment—which show information and how to access. Whereas health evaluative experiences and practices are essential to drive a better and specific intervention, revealing its importance and necessity was also highlighted.

Introduction Regular exercise has long been shown to positively impact the immune system responsiveness and improve mental well-being (MWB). However, the putative links between biomarkers of mental health and immune efficiency in exercising subjects have been scarcely investigated. The aim of this study was to verify the effect of a 14-week combined chair-based exercise program (CEP) on salivary steroid hormones and anti-microbial proteins, functional fitness, and MWB indexes in pre-frail older women. Methods The participant women (82.8 4.6 years old; n = 32) were randomly divided into the exercising group (CEP, n = 17) and the non-exercising control group (CG, n = 15). The pre/post assessment included: (1) salivary anti-microbial proteins lysozyme; (Lys) and immunoglobulin-A (IgA); (2) salivary steroid hormones of testosterone (TT) and cortisol (COR); (3) functional fitness (gait speed, hand grip strength, and static balance); (4) MWB questionnaires (happiness, depression state, satisfaction with life, and stress). Results Significant differences with large Cohen’s (d) effect sizes were found on increased salivary TT (p < 0.05; d = 0.60) after exercise intervention. The results revealed a decrease in IgA levels after CEP (p < 0.01, d = 0.30). The increase in subjective happiness levels (p < 0.05, d = 0.30) and decrease of stress perception (p < 0.01, d = 2.60) and depressive state (p < 0.05, d = 0.30) were found after intervention in the CEP group. Robust statistical differences in gait speed (p < 0.05; d = 0.60) and balance tests (p < 0.05; d = 0.80) were also found in the CEP group. In control, COR increased moderately (p < 0.05; d = 0.65) while no changes were found for the other indicators. Correlation analyses showed inter-dependence between pre–post variations of MWB, biochemical indexes, and fitness function (e.g., COR inverse correlation with hand grip strength and balance tests). Conclusion The CEP program was able to improve functional-fitness performance, decrease feelings of stress, and increase happiness. The CEP also induced clinically relevant hormonal and immune responses, which suggests that chair exercises that combine muscular strength, balance, and gait speed training are promising interventions to improve physical and mental health of older pre-frail adults.

Nowadays, it is accepted that the regular practice of exercise and branched-chain amino acids supplementation (BCAAs) can benefit the immune responses in older persons, prevent the occurrence of physical frailty (PF), cognitive decline, and aging-related comorbidities. However, the impact of their combination (as non-pharmacological interventions) in albumin and the inflammatory markers is not fully understood. Therefore, we investigated the effect of a 40-week multifactorial intervention [MIP, multicomponent exercise (ME) associated or not with BCAAs] on plasma levels of inflammatory markers and albumin in frail older persons (≥75 years old) living at residential care homes (RCH). This study consisted of a prospective, naturalistic, controlled clinical trial with four arms of multifactorial and experimental (interventions-wahshout-interventions) design. The intervention groups were ME + BCAAs (n = 8), ME (n = 7), BCAAs (n = 7), and control group (n = 13). Lower limb muscle-strength, cognitive profile, and PF tests were concomitantly evaluated with plasma levels of albumin, anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines [Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) respectively], TNF-α/IL-10 ratio, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity at four different time-points: Baseline (T1), after 16 weeks of multifactorial intervention (T2), then after a subsequent 8 weeks washout period (T3) and finally, after an additional 16 weeks of multifactorial intervention (T4). Improvement of cognitive profile and muscle strength-related albumin levels, as well as reduction in the TNF-α levels were found particularly in ME plus BCAAs group. No significant variations were observed over time for TNF-α/IL-10 ratio or MPO activity. Overall, the study showed that MIP triggered slight alterations in the inflammatory and physical function of the frail older participants, which could provide independence and higher quality of life for this population.

Increasing life expectancy and the growing number of elderly people have also increased the number of comorbidities common in this population in the same proportion, where the risk of falling is highlighted and has been increasing in a worrying and negative way. However, the practice of physical exercise can improve the prevention and reduction of falls. In this context, this chapter addresses the theme with the objective of identifying how, which, and when physical exercise can contribute in relation to the risk of falling in the elderly. Through analysis of articles and recent reviews, the chapter addresses the influence of strength, power, aerobic, and multicomponent exercises in their various components and possible influences on the risk of falling. There is also a proposal for a specific program for the risk of falling in the elderly, with adjustments in volume and intensity according to the needs of the target audience, based and improved by worldwide guidelines.