Previous research demonstrates an association between spatial ability and science achievement in primary-school-aged children. However, little is known about the mechanisms driving this relationship. We investigated the associations between children's spatial skills and components of physics learning (factual knowledge vs. conceptual knowledge [predictions and explanations]). Participants (N = 103; mean age = 9.6 years) completed a set of spatial tasks based on the ''2 x 2" (intrinsic-extrinsic; static-dynamic) model of spatial cognition. They also participated in a whole-class science lesson about sound, followed by an assessment of science knowledge. After controlling for vocabulary and prior knowledge, spatial ability was not associated with factual knowledge scores. However, spatial skills were significantly associated with predictions and explanations; the association was stronger for explanations than for predictions and was driven by intrinsic-dynamic spatial skills. Findings demonstrate that spatial skills are more important for conceptual scientific knowledge than for factual scientific knowledge and further suggest that spatial intervention studies designed to enhance children's science learning should target intrinsic-dynamic spatial skills. (c) 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

This study reviewed research on the features of digital media (e.g. apps, e-books) which influence interactions between adults and children aged 2–7 when using these media together. We focused on interactions which support child learning, particularly oral language development. We used robust variance estimation to conduct multilevel meta-analyses of 15 experimental studies (n = 627 parent–child pairs; k = 190 effects). Findings suggest that digital design can shape adult-child interactions (g = 0.56, k = 170), particularly the quality of parental language input (g = 1.1, k = 86). Embedding conversation prompts into e-books showed particular promise (g = 0.84–0.99, k = 58-74). Though small in scope, this study offers direction for media design and research and indicates promise for low-cost intervention via digital design. However, it also indicates a need for more robust and well-powered research to inform design, practice and policy. In particular, better evidence is needed to establish whether the benefits identified for adult-child interaction translate into benefits for wider child and adult outcomes.

This study investigated differences in adult-child language interactions when parents and their three-to-four-year old children engage in wordless book reading, text-and-picture book reading and a small-world toy play activity. Twenty-two parents recorded themselves completing each activity at home with their child. Parent input was compared across contexts, focusing on interactive and conceptual domains: use of open prompts, expansions or extensions of children's utterances, and use of decontextualised (abstract) language. Use of linguistic expansions was greater during book reading than toy play. Parents used open questions and added contingent conceptual information more often when reading wordless books than in both other conditions. Findings suggest that wordless books may combine the benefits of open-endedness and linguistic content based around a narrative. Parents' use of abstract language also varied by condition. This study extends understanding of the role of activity context in shaping children's language learning environments.

Polysemy, or the property of words having multiple meanings, is a prevalent feature of vocabulary. In this study we validated a new measure of polysemy knowledge for children with English as an additional language (EAL) and a first language (EL1) and examined the relationship between polysemy knowledge and age, language status, and reading comprehension. Participants were 112 British children aged 5 to 6 (n = 61) or 8 to 9 years (n = 51), 37% of whom had EAL (n = 41). Participants completed the new measure of knowledge of polysemes, along with other measures of language, literacy and cognitive ability. The new measure was reliable and valid with EAL and EL1 children. Age and language status predicted children's polyseme knowledge. Polyseme knowledge uniquely contributed to reading comprehension after controlling for age, language status, non-verbal intelligence, time reading in English, and breadth of vocabulary. This research underscores the importance of polysemy for children's linguistic development.

The multidimensional structure of spatial ability remains a debated issue. However, the developmental trajectories of spatial skills have yet to be investigated as a source of evidence within this debate. We tested the intrinsic versus extrinsic and static versus dynamic dimensions of the Uttal et al. (2013, Psychol. Bull ., 139 , 352) typology in relation to spatial development. Participants ( N  = 184) aged 6–11 completed spatial tasks chosen to measure these spatial dimensions. The results indicated that the developmental trajectories of intrinsic versus extrinsic skills differed significantly. Intrinsic skills improved more between 6 and 8 years, and 7 and 8 years, than extrinsic skills. Extrinsic skills increased more between 8 and 10 years than intrinsic skills. The trajectories of static versus dynamic skills did not differ significantly. The findings support the intrinsic versus extrinsic, but not the static versus dynamic dimension, of the Uttal et al. (2013, Psychol. Bull ., 139 , 352) typology.

Mobile touchscreen applications present new opportunities for children’s language learning. This systematic review synthesizes the evidence on the impact of features of mobile applications on children’s language learning. Experimental studies published from 2010 onwards with children aged 3 to 11 years old were included. Of the 1,081 studies screened, 11 studies were identified, which examined four features of mobile touchscreen applications: inbuilt narration, real-time conversation prompts, augmented reality (AR), and hotspots. Inbuilt narration had a positive impact on story comprehension and word learning compared to reading alone but not shared reading with an adult. Real-time conversation prompts improved the quality and quantity of adult-child talk, and AR supported language learning ostensibly via increased motivation. No evidence was found for an impact of text-relevant hotspots. Limitations of the existing literature are discussed, and a strong case is made for further research in the area, particularly that which builds on learning theory and existing qualitative research.

The multidimensional structure of spatial ability remains a debated issue. However, the developmental trajectories of spatial skills have yet to be investigated as a source of evidence within this debate. We tested the intrinsic versus extrinsic and static versus dynamic dimensions of the Uttal et al. (2013, Psychol. Bull., 139, 352) typology in relation to spatial development. Participants (N = 184) aged 6–11 completed spatial tasks chosen to measure these spatial dimensions. The results indicated that the developmental trajectories of intrinsic versus extrinsic skills differed significantly. Intrinsic skills improved more between 6 and 8 years, and 7 and 8 years, than extrinsic skills. Extrinsic skills increased more between 8 and 10 years than intrinsic skills. The trajectories of static versus dynamic skills did not differ significantly. The findings support the intrinsic versus extrinsic, but not the static versus dynamic dimension, of the Uttal et al. (2013, Psychol. Bull., 139, 352) typology.

Most common words in English have multiple different meanings, but relatively little is known about why children grasp some meanings better than others. This study aimed to examine how variables at the child-level, wordform-level, and meaning-level impact knowledge of words with multiple meanings. In this study, 174 children aged 5- to 9-years-old completed a test of homonym knowledge, and measures of non-verbal intelligence and language background were collected. Psycholinguistic features of the wordforms tested were assessed through collecting adult ratings, corpus coding, and using existing databases. Logistic mixed effects models revealed that whilst the frequency of wordforms contributed to children’s knowledge, so also did dominance and imageability of the separate meanings of the word. Predictors were similar for children with English as an Additional Language and English as a first language. This greater understanding of why some word meanings are known better than others has significant implications for vocabulary learning.

Previous research demonstrates an association between spatial ability and science achievement in primary school aged children. However, little is known about the mechanisms driving this relationship. We therefore investigated the associations between children’s spatial skills and components of physics learning (knowledge retrieval vs. conceptual knowledge [predictions and explanations]). Participants (N = 107; mean age: 9.2 years) completed a set of spatial tasks based on the ‘2 x 2’ (intrinsic-extrinsic; static-dynamic) model. They also participated in a whole-class science lesson about sound, followed by an assessment of science knowledge. After controlling for vocabulary and prior knowledge, spatial ability was not associated with knowledge retrieval scores. Mental rotation was most closely associated with conceptual predictions (r 2 = 4-7%). However, mental folding was most strongly associated with conceptual explanations (r 2 = 9-14%). These findings suggest that future spatial intervention studies designed to enhance children’s science learning should target these intrinsic-dynamic spatial skills.

Spatial language is the language of spatial concepts and spatial relationships. Prior research has demonstrated an association between spatial language and spatial thinking in pre-school children. However, there is limited evidence exploring age-based differences in spatial language in older childhood. This cross-sectional study has three main aims. First, we present a novel spatial language measure and show differences in spatial language performance across age groups from 6 to 10 years (N = 155). Second, having demonstrated that our measure is sensitive to age-based progression, we use regression analyses to determine relations between spatial language and performance on a range of spatial tasks (r(2):1.2%-9.0%). Third, we investigate the relations between spatial language and different mathematics skills (r(2):0.2%-15.4%) and propose mechanisms that may explain these associations. We discuss how these findings lay a foundation for future spatial language interventions as a novel tool which may lead to educational improvements in mathematics.

Spatial thinking is an important predictor of mathematics. However, existing data do not determine whether all spatial sub-domains are equally important for mathematics outcomes nor whether mathematics-spatial associations vary through development. This study addresses these questions by exploring the developmental relations between mathematics and spatial skills in children aged 6-10 years (N = 155). We extend previous findings by assessing and comparing performance across Uttal et al.'s (2013), four spatial sub-domains. Overall spatial skills explained 5%-14% of the variation across three mathematics performance measures (standardized mathematics skills, approximate number sense and number line estimation skills), beyond other known predictors of mathematics including vocabulary and gender. Spatial scaling (extrinsic-static sub-domain) was a significant predictor of all mathematics outcomes, across all ages, highlighting its importance for mathematics in middle childhood. Other spatial sub-domains were differentially associated with mathematics in a task- and age-dependent manner. Mental rotation (intrinsic-dynamic skills) was a significant predictor of mathematics at 6 and 7 years only which suggests that at approximately 8 years of age there is a transition period regarding the spatial skills that are important for mathematics. Taken together, the results support the investigation of spatial training, particularly targeting spatial scaling, as a means of improving both spatial and mathematical thinking.

Background Prior longitudinal and correlational research with adults and adolescents indicates that spatial ability is a predictor of science learning and achievement. However, there is little research to date with primary‐school aged children that addresses this relationship. Understanding this association has the potential to inform curriculum design and support the development of early interventions. Aims This study examined the relationship between primary‐school children's spatial skills and their science achievement. Method Children aged 7–11 years (N = 123) completed a battery of five spatial tasks, based on a model of spatial ability in which skills fall along two dimensions: intrinsic–extrinsic; static–dynamic. Participants also completed a curriculum‐based science assessment. Results Controlling for verbal ability and age, mental folding (intrinsic–dynamic spatial ability), and spatial scaling (extrinsic–static spatial ability) each emerged as unique predictors of overall science scores, with mental folding a stronger predictor than spatial scaling. These spatial skills combined accounted for 8% of the variance in science scores. When considered by scientific discipline, mental folding uniquely predicted both physics and biology scores, and spatial scaling accounted for additional variance in biology and variance in chemistry scores. The children's embedded figures task (intrinsic–static spatial ability) only accounted for variance in chemistry scores. The patterns of association were consistent across the age range. Conclusion Spatial skills, particularly mental folding, spatial scaling, and disembedding, are predictive of 7‐ to 11‐year‐olds’ science achievement. These skills make a similar contribution to performance for each age group.

Spatial scaling is the ability to transform distance information between shapes of differing sizes. Research on the developmental trajectories of spatial scaling beyond the pre-school years has been limited by a lack of suitable scaling measures for older children. Here we developed an age appropriate discrimination scaling task, and demonstrated that children (N = 386) achieve performance gains in spatial scaling skills between 5 and 8-years-of-age, after which no significant improvements were found. Furthermore, the results support the use of relative distance strategies for task completion. These findings contrast to localisation paradigms, where performance reaches a plateau by age 6 and mental transformation strategies are used for scaling. The finding that scaling skills continue to develop until 8 years highlight the potential of scaling interventions in the early primary school years. Such interventions may infer direct benefits on spatial thinking and indirect advantages for science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) achievement.

Prior longitudinal and correlational research with adults and adolescents indicates that spatial ability is a predictor of science learning and achievement. However, there is little research to date with primary-school aged children that addresses this relationship. Understanding this association has the potential to inform curriculum design and support the development of early interventions. This study examined the relationship between primary-school children's spatial skills and their science achievement. Children aged 7–11 years ( N  =   123) completed a battery of five spatial tasks, based on a model of spatial ability in which skills fall along two dimensions: intrinsic–extrinsic; static–dynamic. Participants also completed a curriculum-based science assessment. Controlling for verbal ability and age, mental folding (intrinsic–dynamic spatial ability), and spatial scaling (extrinsic–static spatial ability) each emerged as unique predictors of overall science scores, with mental folding a stronger predictor than spatial scaling. These spatial skills combined accounted for 8% of the variance in science scores. When considered by scientific discipline, mental folding uniquely predicted both physics and biology scores, and spatial scaling accounted for additional variance in biology and variance in chemistry scores. The children's embedded figures task (intrinsic–static spatial ability) only accounted for variance in chemistry scores. The patterns of association were consistent across the age range. Spatial skills, particularly mental folding, spatial scaling, and disembedding, are predictive of 7- to 11-year-olds’ science achievement. These skills make a similar contribution to performance for each age group.

While there is evidence of associations between spatial skills and mathematics, relatively few studies explore these associations in children aged 5-10 years. I will present findings from longitudinal and cross-sectional studies to highlight the importance of spatial skills as both longitudinal and concurrent predictors of mathematics. First, secondary data analysis of the Millennium Cohort Study indicates that spatial performance at both 5 and 7 years is a significant predictor of mathematics at age 7 (N = 12099). Second, cross-sectional findings from children aged 5-10 years (N=156), suggest that spatial skills explain 10-12% of the variation in standardised maths performance and approximate number sense, even after accounting for vocabulary skills. That is, spatial scaling was a significant predictor of mathematics for all age groups, while the role of mental rotation and mental folding varied with age. These findings have implications for the design of mathematics interventions customised for specific developmental stages.

The current study investigated the relationship between children’s spatial ability and their scientific knowledge, skills and understanding. Children aged 7-11 years (N=123) completed a battery of five spatial tasks, based on a model of spatial ability in which skills fall along two dimensions: intrinsic-extrinsic; static-dynamic. Participants also answered science questions from standardised assessments, grouped into conceptual topic areas. Spatial scaling (extrinsic static spatial ability) and mental folding (intrinsic dynamic spatial ability) each emerged as predictors of total science scores, with mental folding accounting for more variance than spatial scaling. Mental folding predicted both physics and biology scores, whereas spatial scaling accounted for additional variance only in biology scores. The embedded figures task (intrinsic static spatial ability) predicted chemistry scores. The pattern was consistent across the age range. These findings provide novel evidence for the differential role of distinct aspects of spatial ability in relation to children’s science performance.