Oceanic islands are hotspots of both species extinctions and introductions, which led to marked changes in species composition. This may disrupt key ecological interactions, such as animal-mediated seed dispersal, with potential long-term impacts on ecosystem structure and functioning. While some recent studies on individual taxa and islands report functional shifts, there has been no globally comprehensive study of how these changes vary in intensity and direction across islands. Importantly, it remains unclear how changes in traits of animal communities actually translate to ecologically relevant mismatches with native plant species. We report widespread functional remodeling of frugivore communities based on frugivory-specific traits of all native, extinct, and introduced vertebrate frugivores (birds, mammals, reptiles) from 120 islands in 22 archipelagos. There is a trend for taxonomic and functional substitution, mainly of nonvolant terrestrial mammalian omnivores replacing large-gaped flying frugivores, which caused a mismatch between gape size and seed size. This shift in seed dispersal potential risks underestimation in single-taxon studies. Overall, vertebrate introductions outnumbered extinctions both in terms of species (44 vs. 23%) and islands affected (92 vs. 76%). Moreover, introductions have driven stronger shifts in frugivore trait space compared to extinctions. However, the general patterns are modulated by substantial spatial variation and idiosyncratic functional shifts within frugivore communities on some islands. This, coupled with differences in plant seed size distributions, leads to variability in realized functional mismatches among islands. These results emphasize challenges with predicting functional responses to anthropogenic activities, while highlighting that remodeling of ecosystem interactions is a global concern.

Whether species extinctions have accelerated during the Anthropocene and the extent to which certain species are more susceptible to extinction due to their ecological preferences and intrinsic biological traits are among the most pressing questions in conservation biology. Assessing extinction rates is, however, challenging, as best exemplified by the phenomenon of 'dark extinctions': the loss of species that disappear before they are even formally described. These issues are particularly problematic in oceanic islands, where species exhibit high rates of endemism and unique biological traits but are also among the most vulnerable to extinction. Here, we document plant species extinctions since Linnaeus' Species Plantarum in Macaronesia, a biogeographic region comprised of five hyperdiverse oceanic archipelagos, and identify the key drivers behind these extinctions. We compiled 168 records covering 126 taxa, identifying 13 global and 155 local extinction events. Significantly higher extinction rates were observed compared to the expected global background rate. We uncovered differentiated extinction patterns along altitudinal gradients, highlighting a recent coastal hotspot linked to socioeconomic changes in Macaronesian archipelagos from the 1960s onwards. Key factors influencing extinction patterns include island age, elevation, introduced herbivorous mammals, and human population size. Trait-based analyses across the floras of the Azores and Canary Islands revealed that endemicity, pollination by vertebrates, nitrogen-fixing capacity, woodiness, and zoochory consistently tended to increase extinction risk. Our findings emphasize the critical role of geography and biological traits, alongside anthropogenic impacts, in shaping extinction dynamics on oceanic islands. Enhancing our knowledge of life-history traits within island floras is crucial for accurately predicting and mitigating future extinction risks, underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive biodiversity assessments in island ecosystems.

Many insular plant species inhabiting different archipelagos worldwide present typical ornithophilous floral traits (e.g. copious nectar, red-orange colours), but most of them are visited by insectivorous/granivorous birds and lizards, which act as generalist pollinators. Oceanic islands promote these ecological interactions mainly due to the scarcity of arthropods. Our goal is to understand how these generalist interactions contribute to the shift of floral traits from entomophily (mainland) to ornithophily or saurophily (island), where specialist nectar-feeding birds have not inhabited.We used the well-known pollination interactions occurring in the Canary Islands to evaluate two proposed ecological hypotheses, bee-avoidance or bird-attraction, explaining evolutionary transitions of floral traits. Specifically, we studied the flower colour conspicuousness of bird-pollinated Canarian species visited by birds and lizards with their closest relatives from the mainland mainly visited by bees. We analysed the chromatic contrast of flower colours using visual models of bees, birds and lizards and the achromatic contrast in visual models of bees. We also compared reflectance spectra marker points of flowers with available spectral discrimination sensitivities of bees and birds.Using a phylogenetically corrected framework of independent plant lineages, our results revealed that bird-pollinated Canarian species showed lower chromatic contrast according to bees and lizard visual models than their mainland relatives, but similar chromatic contrast for bird vision. In addition, reflectance spectra marker points of the Canarian species were displaced to the longest wavelengths, far from the wavelengths of maximum discrimination of bees, but close to birds.We conclude that the avoidance of bees would be a primary ecological strategy explaining the evolutionary transitions of flower colours from melittophily to ornithophily. The lower conspicuousness of bird-pollinated Canarian flowers in lizards is perhaps a side effect of the bee-avoidance strategy rather than an independent evolutionary strategy. Together, these findings provide insights into how vertebrate generalist pollinators can also lead to divergence of floral traits in insular habitats, but also in other arthropod-poor habitats.Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.image

Oceanic islands are relatively poor in insects compared to mainland areas. Therefore, insect-eating island birds and lizards may include other food sources into their diet, e.g. nectar and pollen. Here, we explore if insect-eating island bats face a similar problem and accordingly join the birds and lizards and incorporate plant resources into their diet. Thus, a priory, we assume flower visitation by bats to be more common on oceanic islands than elsewhere. To test this, we reviewed the literature to obtain information on the geographic distribution and diet of all 1,399 species of bats in the world and found that 49%, 21%, and 31% of species have a mainland, mixed mainland-island, and island distribution, respectively. Diets are known for only 65% (905 species) of the bats in the world, and 70%, 22%, and 8% of these, respectively, rely on insects, fruit, and floral resources as their major diet component. Twenty-seven species are even obligate flower visitors. This study confirms that flower-visiting bats, especially Pteropodidae, are significantly more frequent on oceanic islands, while insect eaters are more frequent on mainland and continental islands. Consequently, we argue that flower visitation and pollination by insect-eating island bats require more attention in future island ecology studies. For a start, we list known examples in the literature and report a case study from the Canary Islands. In the latter, we examined the foreheads of 34 museum specimens of the seven Canarian bat species. Half of them carried pollen from ≥ 9 taxa, but only three bat species had larger amounts. Pollen was not identified, but many Canarian and exotic plant species are candidates. Thus, flower visitation by bats may be an oceanic island phenomenon, but requires more focused research, especially night-time flower observations and examination of bats for pollen.

Ecological interactions are one of the main forces that sustain Earth’s biodiversity. A major challenge for studies of ecology and evolution is to determine how these interactions affect the fitness of species when we expand from studying isolated, pairwise interactions to include networks of interacting species 1 – 4 . In networks, chains of effects caused by a range of species have an indirect effect on other species they do not interact with directly, potentially affecting the fitness outcomes of a variety of ecological interactions (such as mutualism) 5 – 7 . Here we apply analytical techniques and numerical simulations to 186 empirical mutualistic networks and show how both direct and indirect effects alter the fitness of species coevolving in these networks. Although the fitness of species usually increased with the number of mutualistic partners, most of the fitness variation across species was driven by indirect effects. We found that these indirect effects prevent coevolving species from adapting to their mutualistic partners and to other sources of selection pressure in the environment, thereby decreasing their fitness. Such decreases are distributed in a predictable way within networks: peripheral species receive more indirect effects and experience higher reductions in fitness than central species. This topological effect was also evident when we analysed an empirical study of an invasion of pollination networks by honeybees. As honeybees became integrated as a central species within networks, they increased the contribution of indirect effects on several other species, reducing their fitness. Our study shows how and why indirect effects can govern the adaptive landscape of species-rich mutualistic assemblages.

Research in Macaronesia has led to substantial advances in ecology, evolution and conservation biology. We review the scientific developments achieved in this region, and outline promising research avenues enhancing conservation. Some of these discoveries indicate that the Macaronesian flora and fauna are composed of rather young lineages, not Tertiary relicts, predominantly of European origin. Macaronesia also seems to be an important source region for back-colonisation of continental fringe regions on both sides of the Atlantic. This group of archipelagos (Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary Islands, and Cabo Verde) has been crucial to learn about the particularities of macroecological patterns and interaction networks on islands, providing evidence for the development of the General Dynamic Model of oceanic island biogeography and subsequent updates. However, in addition to exceptionally high richness of endemic species, Macaronesia is also home to a growing number of threatened species, along with invasive alien plants and animals. Several innovative conservation and management actions are in place to protect its biodiversity from these and other drivers of global change. The Macaronesian Islands are a well-suited field of study for island ecology and evolution research, mostly due to its special geological layout with 40 islands grouped within five archipelagos differing in geological age, climate and isolation. A large amount of data is now available for several groups of organisms on and around many of these islands. However, continued efforts should be made toward compiling new information on their biodiversity, to pursue various fruitful research avenues and develop appropriate conservation management tools.

Megafaunal frugivores can consume large amounts of fruits whose seeds may be dispersed over long distances, thus, affecting plant regeneration processes and ecosystem functioning. We investigated the role of brown bears (Ursus arctos) as legitimate megafaunal seed dispersers. We assessed the quantity component of seed dispersal by brown bears across its entire distribution based on information about both the relative frequency of occurrence and species composition of fleshy fruits in the diet of brown bears extracted from the literature. We assessed the quality component of seed dispersal based on germination experiments for 11 fleshy-fruited plant species common in temperate and boreal regions and frequently eaten by brown bears. Across its distribution, fleshy fruits, on average, represented 24% of the bear food items and 26% of the total volume consumed. Brown bears consumed seeds from at least 101 fleshy-fruited plant species belonging to 24 families and 42 genera, of which Rubus (Rosaceae) and Vaccinium (Ericaceae) were most commonly eaten. Brown bears inhabiting Mediterranean forests relied the most on fleshy fruits and consumed the largest number of species per study area. Seeds ingested by bears germinated at higher percentages than those from whole fruits, and at similar percentages than manually depulped seeds. We conclude that brown bears are legitimate seed dispersers as they consume large quantities of seeds that remain viable after gut passage. The decline of these megafaunal frugivores may compromise seed dispersal services and plant regeneration processes.

Birds and mammals are the only vertebrates which receive comprehensive attention in studies of dispersal of fleshy-fruited plant species. However, recently the importance of fleshy fruit in the diet of lizards (order Squamata: suborder Sauria), and their role as seed dispersers have been recognized in a number of studies, especially in studies from arthropod-poor habitats, such as oceanic islands. Here, we revisit the evidence of fruit-eating lizards on a global scale in order to test if fruit consumption is more common on islands than expected by chance. We constructed a database of 470 lizard species (from a global count of 6,515 species), that have been reported to consume fleshy fruits. This set of lizards belong to 27 families with Scincidae (N = 78 species), Gekkonidae (69), and Dactyloidae (55) having more frugivorous species than other lizard families. We found that 62.4% of these lizards inhabit islands, whereas only one third (35.3%) of all lizard species inhabit islands. These values support the presence of an "insular phenomenon," however; we also tested if this biogeographical pattern might be driven by body size and evolutionary history of lizards. Thus, we looked for any phylogenetic signals in the distributions of lizard body size, island-presence, and frugivory and calculated phylogenetically corrected correlations among the three variables on a global subset of 2,417 lizard species for which we had detailed phylogenetic information. Both lizard body size and island-presence were weakly influenced by phylogeny; whereas, frugivory was not. In addition, we found that (1) body size and frugivory were weakly positively correlated; (2) body size and island-presence were uncorrelated; and (3) island-presence and frugivory were strongly positively correlated. Thus, we conclude that the main driver of frugivory on islands is the specific island environment and not lizard body size per se. Islands are said to be poor in arthropods and predators, and this may force/allow island lizards to forage for additional food sources, such as fleshy fruits. We also suggest that modern lizards as well as their ancestors may potentially play an important role to many plants as seed dispersers. However, we do not known how tight the correlation is between frugivory and seed dispersal. Thus, lizards repeatedly inspire us to ask new ecological and evolutionary questions.

The disappearance of native seed dispersers due to anthropogenic activities is often accompanied by the introduction of alien species, which may to some extent replace the ecological service provided by the extinct ones. Yet, little empirical evidence exists demonstrating the evolutionary consequences of such alien "replacement." Here, we document the conflicting selection exerted on seed size by two native lizards (Podarcis lilfordi and P. pityusensis) and an alien mammal species (Martes martes), all acting as legitimate seed dispersers of the Mediterranean relict Cneorum tricoccon. While lizards mostly exerted a negative directional selection on seed diameter, especially P. pityusensis, the much larger pine marten exerted positive selection on seed size. Our findings suggest that this among-disperser variation in the selection regimes, together with the occurrence of spatial variation in the presence of each seed disperser, help to create the geographical variation observed for seed size of C. tricoccon. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical evidence showing opposing selective pressures between native and alien species in the seed dispersal process in an invaded ecosystem.

The honeybee is the primary managed species worldwide for both crop pollination and honey production. Owing to beekeeping activity, its high relative abundance potentially affects the structure and functioning of pollination networks in natural ecosystems. Given that evidences about beekeeping impacts are restricted to observational studies of specific species and theoretical simulations, we still lack experimental data to test for their larger-scale impacts on biodiversity. Here we used a three-year field experiment in a natural ecosystem to compare the effects of pre- and post-establishment stages of beehives on the pollination network structure and plant reproductive success. Our results show that beekeeping reduces the diversity of wild pollinators and interaction links in the pollination networks. It disrupts their hierarchical structural organization causing the loss of interactions by generalist species, and also impairs pollination services by wild pollinators through reducing the reproductive success of those plant species highly visited by honeybees. High-density beekeeping in natural areas appears to have lasting, more serious negative impacts on biodiversity than was previously assumed.

Defaunation of large‐bodied frugivores could be causing severe losses of crucial ecosystem functions such as seed dispersal. The immediate ecological consequences may include alteration or even collapse of seed‐mediated gene flow affecting plant population connectivity, with impacts on the regional scale distribution of genetic variation. Yet, these far‐reaching consequences of defaunation remain understudied. Here, we tested whether human‐induced defaunation of the Canarian frugivorous lizards ( Gallotia , Lacertidae) altered within‐island population connectivity and the amount and large‐scale distribution of genetic variation of Neochamaelea pulverulenta (Rutaceae), which relies exclusively on these lizards for seed dispersal. Our study system defines a lizard downsizing gradient with three contrasted ecological scenarios (islands) with relatively optimal (Gran Canaria; large‐sized lizards), suboptimal (Tenerife; medium) and collapsed seed dispersal processes (La Gomera; small). We extensively sampled individual plant genotypes from 80 populations spanning the full geographical range of the plant to examine their genetic diversity, population‐genetic network topologies, and the patterns of isolation both by distance ( IBD ) and resistance ( IBR ) across these three ecological scenarios. Plant genetic diversity appeared unaffected by defaunation‐mediated downsizing of frugivorous lizards. However, we found a reduced overall plant population connectivity together with an increased isolation by distance within the most defaunated islands (La Gomera and, to a lesser extent, Tenerife) when compared with the scenario preserving the functionality of lizard‐mediated seed dispersal (Gran Canaria). The results, with a significant effect of lizard downsizing, were robust when controlling for biotic/abiotic differences among the three islands by means of isolation by resistance models ( IBR ). Synthesis . Our results provide valuable insights into the far‐reaching consequences of the deterioration of mutualisms on plant population dynamics over very large spatial scales. Conservation of large‐bodied frugivores is, thus, essential because their irreplaceable mutualistic dispersal services maintain an extensive movement of seeds across the landscape, crucial for maintaining the genetic cohesiveness of metapopulations and the adaptive potential of plant species across their entire geographical range.

Aim Fruit colours attract animal seed dispersers, yet the causes of fruit colour diversity remain controversial. The lack of knowledge of large-scale spatial patterns in fruit colours has limited our ability to formulate and test alternative hypotheses to explain fruit colour, fruit size and fruit colour diversity. We describe spatial (especially latitudinal) variation in fruit colour, colour diversity and length, and test for correlations between fruit colour, length and plant habit. Location Time period Global. Present day. Major taxa studied Methods Seed plants. We assembled a database of fruit traits for 13,178 fleshy fruited plant species spanning 136 sites around the world. To assess whether fruit colour categories correspond with spectral reflectances, we tested for clustering of hue, chroma and saturation for 236 species for which we had reflectance data. We then quantified latitudinal gradients in fruit colour, fruit length and fruit colour diversity while controlling for the effects of plant habit and whether colour categories varied with respect to average fruit size. Results Main conclusions Colour categories corresponded well with reflectance data. The tropics show high colour diversity, while red fruits progressively constitute a higher proportion of the fleshy-fruited plant community towards high latitudes. All mammal-associated colours (green, orange, brown and yellow) are more common in the tropics than at high latitudes. Fruit length also increases towards the tropics. Tropical communities tend to have diverse fruit colours, including many mammal-associated fruit colours, while high latitude communities contain a higher percentage of red-fruited species. The correlation between colour and size is strong, and some latitudinal patterns may be partly driven by changes in fruit size. Differences in geography and in the history of plant lineages in the Southern versus the Northern Hemisphere may help to explain some biogeographic patterns, but alternative hypotheses related to fruit defence, development and metabolic costs are plausible.

Plant-animal interactions are pivotal for ecosystem functioning, and usually form complex networks involving multiple species of mutualists as well as antagonists. The costs and benefits of these interactions show a strong context-dependency directly related to individual variation in partner identity and differential strength. Yet understanding the context-dependency and functional consequences of mutualistic and antagonistic interactions on individuals remains a lasting challenge. We use a network approach to characterize the individual, plant-based pollination interaction networks of the Canarian Isoplexis canariensis (Plantaginaceae) with a mixed assemblage of vertebrate mutualists (birds and lizards) and invertebrate antagonists (florivores, nectar larcenists, and predispersal seed predators). We identify and quantify interaction typologies based on the sign (mutualistic vs. antagonistic) and strength (weak vs. strong) of animal-mediated pollination and test the relationship with individual female reproductive success (FRS). In addition, we document pollinator movement patterns among individual plants to infer events of pollen transfer/receipt that define the plant mating networks and test the relationship with FRS. We identify six interaction typologies along a mutualism-antagonism gradient, with two typologies being over-represented involving both mutualists and antagonists and influencing FRS. Plants showing strong mutualistic interactions, but also (weak or strong) interactions with antagonists are relatively better connected in the mating network (i.e., with higher potential to transfer or receive pollen). Thus, mixed flower visitor assemblages with mutualists and antagonists give plants increased their importance in the mating networks, promote outcrossing and increasing both female and male fitness. Our approach helps characterize plant-animal interaction typologies, the context-specificity of diversified mutualisms, and a better forecasting of their functional consequences.

Detailed description of spatial point pattern analyses, plus additional results from univariate and bivariate analyses of plant–animal interaction strengths and plant characteristics.

Description of the study site and the replicate patches.

Pollinator shifts are considered to drive floral trait evolution, yet little is still known about the modifications of petal epidermal surface at a biogeographic region scale. Here we investigated how independent shifts from insects to passerine birds in the Macaronesian Islands consistently modified this floral trait (i.e. absence of papillate cells). Using current phylogenies and extensive evidence from field observations, we selected a total of 81 plant species and subspecies for petal microscopy and comparative analysis, including 19 of the 23 insular species pollinated by opportunistic passerine birds (Macaronesian bird-flowered element). Species relying on passerine birds as the most effective pollinators (bird-pollinated) independently evolved at least five times and in all instances associated with a loss of papillate cells, whereas species with a mixed pollination system (birds plus insects and/or other vertebrates) evolved at least five times in Macaronesia and papillate cells were lost in only 25% of these transitions. Our findings suggest that petal micromorphology is a labile trait during pollinator shifts and that papillate cells tend to be absent on those species where pollinators have limited mechanical interaction with flowers, including opportunistic passerine birds that forage by hovering or from the ground.

Anthropogenic activity is driving population declines and extinctions of large-bodied, fruit-eating animals worldwide. Loss of these frugivores is expected to trigger negative cascading effects on plant populations if remnant species fail to replace the seed dispersal services provided by the extinct frugivores. A collapse of seed dispersal may not only affect plant demography (i.e., lack of recruitment), but should also supress gene flow via seed dispersal. Yet little empirical data still exist demonstrating the genetic consequences of defaunation for animal-dispersed plant species. Here, we first document a significant reduction of seed dispersal distances along a gradient of human-driven defaunation, with increasing loss of large- and medium-bodied frugivores. We then show that local plant neighbourhoods have higher genetic similarity and smaller effective population sizes when large seed dispersers become extinct (i.e., only small frugivores remain) or are even partially downgraded (i.e., medium-sized frugivores providing less efficient seed dispersal). Our results demonstrate that preservation of large frugivores is crucial to maintain functional seed dispersal services and their associated genetic imprints, a central conservation target. Early signals of reduced dispersal distances that accompany the Anthropogenic defaunation forecast multiple, cascading effects on plant populations.

The balance between mutualistic and antagonistic plant-animal interactions and their spatial variation results in a highly dynamic mosaic of reproductive success within plant populations. Yet, the ecological drivers of this small-scale heterogeneity of interaction patterns and their outcomes remain virtually unexplored. We analyzed spatial structure in the frequency and intensity of interactions that vertebrate pollinators (birds and lizards) and invertebrate antagonists (florivores, nectar larcenists, and seed predators) had when interacting with the insular plant Isoplexis canariensis, and their effect on plant fitness. Spatially autocorrelated variation in plant reproductive success (fruit and viable seed set) emerged from the combined action of mutualists and antagonists, rather than reflecting the spatial pattern of any specific animal group. However, the influence of antagonists on plant fitness was stronger primarily due to the florivores' action on earlier reproductive stages, consuming and damaging floral structures before the arrival of pollinators. Our results indicate that the early action of antagonists creates hotspots of increased plant damage, where the effects of later acting mutualists are not translated into increased reproductive benefits. We foresee the potential for antagonists to shape the intra-population mosaics of plant fitness in situations where antagonists outnumber mutualists, when their interactions occur before those of mutualists, and when mutualists can detect and avoid damaged plants while foraging. Severely damaged plants in antagonistic hotspots might be excluded from the mating network and render a limited production of viable seeds, reducing both the growth rate of the plant population and the effective population size.

Extinction-driven, body-size reduction of seed dispersers (i.e. an ecological downsizing resulting from severe defaunation) can entail the loss of unique ecological functions, and impair plant regeneration. However, the manner in which the downsizing of mutualistic animals affects seed dispersal and plant recruitment remains understudied. Here, we took advantage of a natural experiment in the Canarian archipelago to document the consequences of lizards body-size reduction (Gallotia, Lacertidae) on the recruitment of Neochamaelea pulverulenta (Rutaceae), which relies exclusively on these frugivores for seed dispersal. Subsequent to the arrival of humans (ca. 2000–2500 yr BP), the extinction of large-bodied lizards generated a gradient of increasing defaunation on the three islands inhabited by this plant. We hypothesized a significant reduction, and eventually collapse, of early seedling recruitment mirroring the defaunation intensity of the frugivores. We sampled 42 populations spanning the whole geographic range of the plant to examine the quantitative (age structure pattern) and qualitative components (proportion of seedlings growing outside the canopy, number of seedlings established outside the canopy relative to the number of adults – effective recruitment rate, and seedling vigour) of plant regeneration. Our results show that the age structure patterns did not differ among the three contrasted insular scenarios. However, we found significant reductions in seedling recruitment outside the canopy, effective recruitment rate, and delayed negative effects on seedling vigour in populations hosting small- to medium-sized lizard species. Thus, extirpation of large seed-dispersers did not cause substantial reductions in quantitative components of seed dispersal, but determined declines in qualitative aspects impairing dispersal effectiveness. Our study highlights the importance of examining all components of the dispersal and recruitment process to properly document the regeneration outcomes of plants in defaunated, downsized ecological scenarios.

En el Parque Nacional del Teide (Tenerife, Islas Canarias) se autoriza, cada primavera, la introducción de unas 3000 colmenas de abeja doméstica (Apis mellifera, Apidae). Esto implica que unos 100 millones de abejas melíferas compiten por néctar y polen con la fauna polinizadora nativa (insectos, aves y lagartos) de este ecosistema peculiar de alta montaña. Si tenemos en cuenta que A. mellifera es considerada como un polinizador poco eficaz, la masiva presencia de abejas domésticas puede además incidir negativamente tanto en la producción de frutos y semillas como en la viabilidad de las semillas y el vigor de las plántulas. El objetivo de este artículo es señalar las consecuencias ecológicas de la introducción de A. mellifera en la red de interacciones mutualistas en esta área protegida (con un elevado porcentaje de especies endémicas), además de revisar el impacto de la abeja doméstica sobre la flora y fauna nativa en otros sistemas insulares. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que la diversidad de polinizadores disminuye sustancialmente tras la introducción de A. mellifera. Además, se detecta una reducción significativa en la eficacia reproductiva de aquellas plantas (Echium wildpretii, Spartocytisus supranubius) frecuentemente visitadas por A. mellifera. Por todo ello, y en base a los resultados obtenidos, se recomienda eliminar completamente la presencia de colmenas en el interior del Parque Nacional del Teide con el fin de proteger su flora y fauna endémica.