No developing country can afford to ignore the shift in the locus of poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition from rural to urban areas it is now experiencing. This review of recent literature explores the urban face of food and nutrition security in a more comprehensive, integrated way than most previous efforts. The review is organized around a conceptual framework that identifies food insecurity, inadequate caring behaviors, and poor health as the primary causes of malnutrition. It discusses current knowledge in eight areas that require the special attention of policymakers, development practitioners, and program administrators who wish to improve urban food and nutrition security: • the sources and cost of food; • incomes and employment; • urban agriculture; • urban diets; • child caregiving practices; • childhood mortality, morbidity, and malnutrition; • health and environment; and • social assistance programs, or safety nets. The review also reports on the magnitude of rural-urban and intra-urban health differences in mortality, morbidity, and malnutrition. In conclusion, the review indicates which policy issues and knowledge gaps remain for future research to address.

This paper considers the role of caregiving on children's health and development with a special focus on identifying the constraints on effective caregiving in urban areas, and the potential solutions. It uses the extended UNICEF framework for nutrition which suggests that there are six major types of care behaviour: feeding and breast-feeding, food preparation and handling, hygiene behaviour, psycho-social care, care for women and home health practices. To ensure adequate care for the child, the caregiver needs adequate knowledge and education, physical and mental health, autonomy in decision-making, time, and social support from the family and community. This paper describes each of these resources and constraints, and two of the behaviour types (breast-feeding and health care utilization) in the urban areas of eight countries in eastern and southern Africa. It also presents a matrix highlighting critical constraints on caregiving behaviours in urban areas, and potential solutions, and identifies areas where further research is needed.

The UNICEF-expanded model for nutrition is used to analyze the circumstances of care in urban environments. The model postulates that there are six major types of care behaviors: feeding and breast-feeding, food preparation and handling, hygiene behavior, psychosocial care, care for women, and home health practices. These behaviors require the resources of education and knowledge of the caregivers, the physical and mental health of caregivers, autonomy in decisionmaking, time availability, and the social support of the family and community in order to ensure adequate care for the child. This paper describes each of these constraints, and two of the behaviors (feeding and health care utilization) in urban and rural areas. Data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in eight countries in Eastern and Southern Africa were used to illustrate how existing data can be used to examine care, and what research questions remain to be addressed to understand care in the urban setting. A number of differences favor the urban environment over the rural environment: in general, child malnutrition is less (though this may not be true in poor urban areas), maternal education levels are higher, and knowledge of health care practices is greater. On the other hand, breast-feeding seems to be less frequent and of shorter duration. It is argued that care may be even more important in urban rather than rural settings for child health and survival in low-income neighborhoods. Caution is needed when comparing urban and rural areas, however, because there are often enormous care, health, and nutrition differences between poor-income and middle-to-high-income areas of cities. Through the application of the expanded UNICEF model, a research agenda was developed.

American Journal of Agricultural EconomicsVolume 79, Issue 5 p. 1476-1479 Principal Paper Session Trouble Down on the Farm: What Role for Agriculture in Meeting “Food Needs” in the Next Twenty Years? Lawrence Haddad, Lawrence Haddad Director of the Food Consumption and Nutrition Division International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.Search for more papers by this authorPatrick Webb, Patrick Webb Joseph Knoll Stiffungsprofessur University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Hohenheim, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorAlison Slack, Alison Slack research analyst International Food Policy Research InstituteSearch for more papers by this author Lawrence Haddad, Lawrence Haddad Director of the Food Consumption and Nutrition Division International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.Search for more papers by this authorPatrick Webb, Patrick Webb Joseph Knoll Stiffungsprofessur University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Hohenheim, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorAlison Slack, Alison Slack research analyst International Food Policy Research InstituteSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 December 1997 https://doi.org/10.2307/1244365Citations: 4AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume79, Issue5December 1997Pages 1476-1479 RelatedInformation

The UNICEF-expanded model for nutrition is used to analyze the circumstances ofcare in urban environments. The model postulates that there are six major types of carebehaviors: feeding and breast-feeding, food preparation and handling, hygiene behavior,psychosocial care, care for women, and home health practices. These behaviors requirethe resources of education and knowledge of the caregivers, the physical and mentalhealth of caregivers, autonomy in decisionmaking, time availability, and...

The success of development policy depends on the ability to successfully anticipate the response of individuals to changing incentives. Often, however, actual responses differ from anticipated responses. One important reason for this divergence is a poor understanding of how rights, responsibilities, and resources are allocated within institutions such as the household. The insights derived from intrahousehold research between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s on the determinants of food and nutritional status served as an important catalyst for the general development of the intrahousehold approach to development policy analysis. Despite serving as a building block for the wider study of intrahousehold resource allocation, there has not been an in-depth review of sex and gender differences in the food consumption and nutrition literature in the past 10 years. This paper seeks to fill this gap. In addition, the paper undertakes a review of the gender and poverty literature, because economic access to food is so fundamental to food security and nutrition. Why is this an important gap to fill? First, the availability of a series of new food consumption and nutrition studies from the past 10 years affords us an opportunity to get a clearer picture of where intrahousehold and sex differences in food and nutrition occur. Second, the availability of a number of intrahousehold studies from outside the food and nutrition community may have some important lessons for food and nutrition programming. Finally, a number of important measurement issues have emerged in the past 10 years and their importance can be illustrated well in a review of studies such as this. These three considerations, then, form the basis for formulating the objectives of the paper. Specifically, the paper aims to (1) critically review the existing literature and studies on the distribution of food and other proximate factors within the household (with an emphasis on boy-girl differences), (2) critically review the existing literature and studies in the areas of poverty and gender, gender and income earning, drawing out implications for food and nutrition programs, and (3) highlight some important methodological concerns related to poverty, income, and food consumption measurement.