Little is known about how components of working memory (i.e., passive resonance of information in working memory, limited capacity working memory, and suppression of irrelevant information from working memory) impact near and far inferencing among adolescent readers. Using path analyses, the current study evaluated the relations of near and far inferencing, vocabulary, general knowledge, strategy use, and word reading efficiency as well as components of working memory among 1,085 students in Grades 7-12. Results indicated that near inferencing has the largest direct effect on far inferencing. Further, in a model that also included direct and indirect effects of cognitive processes on far inferences, results suggested that working memory (β = .08, p = .02), suppression (β = .07, p =.03), near inferencing (β = .25, p < .001) and vocabulary (β = .18, p < .001) had significant direct effects on far inferencing; whereas suppression (β = .13, p < .001), passive resonance in memory (β = .12, p <.001), background knowledge (β = .12, p = .005), and vocabulary β = .27, p < .001) had significant direct effects on near inferencing. In sum, results suggest that cognitive processes impact inferencing among adolescents.

PurposeThis study investigated the reading profiles of middle school Spanish-speaking emergent bilinguals (EBs) with significantly below grade level reading comprehension and whether these profiles varied in their reading comprehension performance over time.MethodLatent profile analyses were used to classify Grade 6 and 7 Hispanic EBs (n = 340; 39% female) into subgroups based on their word reading and vocabulary knowledge. Growth models were then fit within each profile to evaluate reading comprehension performance over time.ResultsAnalyses revealed four latent profiles emerged: (a) very low word reading and low vocabulary (10%), (b) low word reading and low vocabulary (71%), (c) average word reading and low vocabulary (16%), and (d) high word reading and low vocabulary (3%). Subgroups varied in their reading comprehension initially and over one year. Students in the subgroup marked by very low word reading and low vocabulary showed the lowest reading comprehension performance initially; however, they also showed the greatest growth over one year.ConclusionThese findings suggest that there is heterogeneity in the reading skill profiles of Spanish-speaking EBs with reading comprehension difficulties. They also underscore the prevalence of word reading difficulties among these students. These may be important factors to consider when developing interventions to prevent and remediate these difficulties.

Reading comprehension is contingent upon the integration of various reading skills, including word reading, reading fluency, and comprehension strategies. Students who encounter challenges in both word reading and reading comprehension present an opportunity for growth across multiple reading-related domains. Recent intervention data, as demonstrated by Vaughn et al. (2022), underscores the effectiveness of employing multicomponent reading interventions that target diverse reading skills, yielding positive outcomes for elementary students. This article aims to furnish educators with essential insights and resources to design and implement tailored multicomponent interventions for students with reading difficulties or learning disabilities. By incorporating these targeted interventions, teachers can provide personalized support, thus facilitating growth in the students' reading-related skills. Moreover, the article offers practical methodologies for progress monitoring, allowing teachers to accurately track students' reading-related growth and make data-driven adjustments to optimize their learning experiences. Empowering teachers with such evidence-based approaches can have a profound impact on students' reading comprehension and overall academic success.

Reading comprehension is a complex cognitive task that involves the interaction of various subskills. This chapter starts by describing the theoretical framework that underpins reading comprehension and examines the key components associated with this crucial skill. This helps to highlight the challenges faced by pupils with reading difficulties or specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia. Prior research is summarised, and a new study is described. The chapter concludes by providing recommendations and strategies to support and address the needs of this specific student population effectively, offering guidance for future interventions and initiatives.

National data indicate that approximately 90% of rural students with a reading disability read at or below basic levels of reading proficiency. A growing body of research demonstrates that the ability to make inferences is essential for reading comprehension but particularly difficult for students with reading disabilities. Compounding matters, rural special educators often have limited resources available to support students with reading disabilities, largely served in general education classrooms. In this Practice in Action article, we support rural special educators who must innovatively collaborate with general education teachers to ensure high quality and specialized reading instruction and support inclusive and equitable learning environments by (a) defining inferencing, (b) reviewing College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards that support inferencing, (c) discussing the inference skills of students with or at-risk for reading disabilities, (d) outlining components of effective inference instruction, and (e) offering recommendations for how to teach inferencing using a graphic organizer.

This study investigates the reading profiles of rural Grade 5 and 6 students ( N = 262), a sample with a high proportion of English language learners. We administered a battery of reading and cognitive assessments to classify students’ reading profiles and evaluate if performance on cognitive measures predicted membership in particular profiles. Data were analyzed using latent profile analysis. Latent profile analysis showed four distinct reading profiles in our sample: students with severe reading disabilities (< 2%), students at high risk of reading disability (14%), students at some-risk of reading disability (46%), and students who are typical readers (38%). Lower performance on cognitive measures was associated with group membership in the severe reading profile group compared to the group of students at some-risk of reading failure. In contrast, higher performance on cognitive measures was associated with group membership in the typical reader group compared to students at some-risk of reading failure. In keeping with the findings from past studies documenting reader profiles, we found heterogeneity in the reading profiles of rural upper-elementary grade students. We discuss the need for multicomponent interventions that target all areas of reading with some flexibility in the dosage of each reading component dependent on the reader profiles established prior to intervention.

Middle grade students with disabilities that impact reading, including learning disabilities (LD) in reading, high functioning autism (ASD), and emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), and students atrisk for reading failure due to the effects of poverty often struggle to make knowledge-based inferences while reading informational texts. As a result, these populations of students are not able to read for understanding or learn from grade-level texts. Unfortunately, many special educators have had little preparation in how to develop their knowledge of inference-making or methods for explicitly teaching inference-making. Despite their lack of knowledge, special educators are often solely responsible for teaching skills that support reading comprehension, such as knowledge-based inference-making. This article provides special educators with information and resources to enhance their understanding of knowledge-based inferencing and methods for teaching knowledge-based inference-making to middle grade students with disabilities and those who are at risk for reading failure.

The primary aims of this mixed method study were to (a) examine the effectiveness of a brief inference intervention, (b) compare the types of knowledge-based inferencing errors less skilled middle grade readers make, and (c) evaluate if self-reported cognitive load relates to inferencing. Participants (n = 17) were randomly assigned to a graphic organizer-inference intervention (GO-Inference) (n = 9) or business as usual (BAU) condition (n = 8), and differences between groups were explored for each study purpose. Quantitative and qualitative results suggested that while less skilled readers in the GO-Inference condition made modest progress in forming knowledge-based inferences, they continued to struggle to distinguish relevant versus irrelevant information from text and/or retrieve knowledge necessary to form inferences. Students in the BAU condition were more likely to make errors such as providing irrelevant information or failing to respond. Additionally, students in the GO-Inference condition reported lower cognitive load during inference-making tasks.

We investigated differences in knowledge-based inferencing between rural, middle grade monolingual Englishspeaking students and English learners. Students were introduced to facts about an imaginary planet Gan followed by a multi-episode story about Gan. Participants were tested on the accuracy of fact recall and inferences using this knowledge at three time points (i.e., immediate, one-week, and one-month follow-up). Results show that monolingual English-speaking students significantly outperformed English learners on the inference task. Both subgroups made elaborative inferences more accurately than coherence. Students' ability to recall knowledge base facts was the strongest predictor of their ability to accurately make inferences using this knowledge at each time point.

A wealth of past research has examined the relationship between low physiological arousal and violence or antisocial behavior. Relatively little research; however, has examined the relationship between low physiological arousal and psychopathic traits, with even less having been conducted with juveniles. The current study attempts to fill this gap by evaluating juveniles' physiological arousal using resting heart rate and their levels of psychopathic traits. Results suggest that there is indeed an inverse relationship between resting heart rate and the affective traits of psychopathy (Uncaring, Callousness, and Unemotionality) as well as Thrill or Sensation Seeking in males. No significant relationship was found in females. Implications of the findings as well as study limitations and future directions are discussed.

This experimental study examined the effectiveness of a text-based reading and vocabulary intervention with self-regulatory supports for 4th graders with low reading comprehension. Students with standard scores on the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test between 1.0 standard deviation (SD) and 0.5 SD below the normative sample were included (N=44) and randomly assigned to treatment condition (n=25) or no treatment comparison condition (n=19). Researchers provided the intervention to students in groups of approximately 2-3 students for eight 30 minute sessions. Students in the treatment condition made statistically significant gains on a researcher-developed measure of reading and vocabulary compared with students in the comparison condition.

Difficulties suppressing previously encountered but currently irrelevant information from working memory characterize less skilled comprehenders in studies in which they are matched to skilled comprehenders on word decoding and nonverbal IQ. These “extreme” group designs are associated with several methodological issues. When sample size permits, regression approaches permit a more accurate estimation of effects. Using data for students in Grades 6 through 12 (n = 766), regression techniques assessed the significance and size of the relation of suppression to reading comprehension across the distribution of comprehension skill. After accounting for decoding efficiency and nonverbal IQ, suppression, measured by performance on a verbal proactive interference task, accounted for a small amount of significant unique variance in comprehension (less than 1%). A comparison of suppression in less skilled comprehenders matched to more skilled comprehenders (48 per group) on age, word reading efficiency, and nonverbal IQ did not show significant group differences in suppression. The implications of the findings for theories of reading comprehension and for informing comprehension assessment and intervention are discussed.

Purpose: We examined the effectiveness of a multistrategy inference intervention designed to increase inference making and reading comprehension for middle-grade struggling readers.Method: A total of 66 middle-grade struggling readers were randomized to treatment (n = 33) and comparison (n = 33) conditions. Students in the treatment group received explicit instruction in 4 inference strategies (i.e., clarification using text clues; activating and using prior knowledge; understanding character perspectives and author's purpose; answering inferential questions). In addition, narrative and informational texts were carefully chosen and sequenced to build requisite background knowledge to form inferences. Intervention was delivered in small groups of 3 students for 10 days of instruction.Results: One-way analysis of covariance models on outcome measures with the respective pretest scores as a covariate revealed significant gains on a proximal measure of Egyptian-content knowledge (g = 1.37) and on a standardized measure of reading comprehension-i.e., Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Third Edition Reading Comprehension (g = 0.46).Conclusion: The moderate effect on a standardized measure of reading comprehension provides preliminary evidence for the effectiveness of this multistrategy inference intervention in improving reading comprehension of middle-grade struggling readers.

Purpose: We examined the effects of a text-processing reading comprehension intervention emphasizing listening comprehension and expressive language practices with middle school students with reading difficulties. Method: A total of 134 struggling readers in grades 6–8 were randomly assigned to treatment ( n = 83) and control conditions ( n = 51) using a 2:1 ratio (two students randomized to treatment for every one student randomized to control). Students in the treatment condition received 40 min of daily instruction in small groups of four to six students for approximately 17 hr. Results: One-way analysis of covariance models on outcome measures with the respective pretest scores as a covariate revealed significant gains on proximal measures of vocabulary and key word and main idea formulation. No significant differences were found on standardized measures of listening and reading comprehension. Discussion: Results provide preliminary support for integrating listening comprehension and expressive language practices within a text-processing reading comprehension intervention framework for middle-grade struggling readers.

Separate mixed model analyses of variance were conducted to examine the effect of textual distance on the accuracy and speed of text consistency judgments among adequate and struggling comprehenders across grades 6–12 ( n = 1,203). Multiple regressions examined whether accuracy in text consistency judgments uniquely accounted for variance in comprehension. Results suggest that there is considerable growth across the middle and high school years, particularly for adequate comprehenders in those text integration processes that maintain local coherence. Accuracy in text consistency judgments accounted for significant unique variance for passage-level, but not sentence-level comprehension, particularly for adequate comprehenders.

Reading comprehension is an essential academic skill (Nash & Snowling, 2006; National Reading Panel, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000). Yet, among students in the eighth grade, approximately 64% of all students and 91% of students with disabilities do not read at proficient levels (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2013). This suggests that when reading grade-level texts, a large percentage of middle-grade readers are not able to accurately connect important ideas in text, form inferences that integrate information in text with general knowledge of the topic, and synthesize common ideas across various texts (NCES, 2013). These data highlight the need for intensive reading interventions that explicitly teach middle-grade struggling readers how to comprehend grade-level texts and acquire content knowledge from the texts they read.

The integration of knowledge during reading was tested in 1,109 secondary school students. Reading times for the second sentence in a pair (Jane's headache went away) were compared in conditions where the first sentence was either causally or temporally related to the first sentence (Jane took an aspirin vs. Jane looked for an aspirin). Mixed-effects explanatory item response models revealed that at higher comprehension levels, sentences were read more quickly in the causal condition. There were no condition-related reading time differences at lower comprehension levels. This interaction held with comprehension- and inference-related factors (working memory, word and world knowledge, and word reading efficiency) in the models. Less skilled comprehenders have difficulty in knowledge-text integration processes that facilitate sentence processing during reading.

We evaluated the technical adequacy of oral reading fluency (ORF) probes in which 1,472 middle school students with and without reading difficulties read fluency probes for 60 s versus reading the full passage. Results suggested that the reliability of 60-s probes (rs ≥ .75) was not substantively different than full passage probes (rs ≥ .77) among struggling readers and typically developing readers in Grades 6 to 8. The correlation of 60-s and the full passage probes with norm-referenced measures of ORF ranged from .32 to .83, and the correlation with norm-referenced measures of reading comprehension ranged from .32 to .54, indicating that both measures were moderately valid and adequate for use among middle school students. Last, full passage probes with sensitivity rates ranging from .40 to .45 were only slightly more sensitive for identifying at-risk readers than 60-s probes, with sensitivity rates ranging from .36 to .40, suggesting that the full passage probes identified a slightly higher percentage of at-risk students with reading difficulties.

We conducted a meta-analysis of 28 studies comprising 39 samples to ask the question, "What is the magnitude of the association between various baseline child cognitive characteristics and response to reading intervention?" Studies were located via literature searches, contact with researchers in the field, and review of references from the National Reading Panel Report. Eligible participant populations included at-risk elementary school children enrolled in the third grade or below. Effects were analyzed using a shifting unit of analysis approach within three statistical models: cognitive characteristics predicting growth curve slope (Model 1, mean r = .31), gain (Model 2, mean r = .21), or postintervention reading controlling for preintervention reading (Model 3, mean r = .15). Effects were homogeneous within each model when effects were aggregated within study. The small size of the effects calls into question the practical significance and utility of using cognitive characteristics for prediction of response when baseline reading is available.

For school-aged children with reading difficulties, an emerging and important area of investigation concerns determining predictors of intervention response. Previous studies have focused exclusively on cognitive and broadly defined behavioral variables. What has been missing, however, are studies examining anxiety, which is among the most commonly experienced difficulty for youth.