Abstract Wild animals provide essential nutritional and economic benefits to many communities in the tropics, yet their handling and consumption carry significant health risks. Wild meat can harbour foodborne (e.g., Salmonella or Giardia ) and zoonotic (e.g., Ebola virus, Monkeypox virus, Marburg virus, Lassa virus, coronaviruses, simian retroviruses, and influenza viruses) pathogens that cause routine and often severe illnesses, local outbreaks, and occasionally pandemics. The hunting and consumption of wild meat is deeply embedded in local cultures and trade remains largely unregulated in many countries, making prohibitive policies ineffective or counterproductive. This 2-year project in Cameroon examined health risks associated with wild meat handling and consumption across the entire value chain – from hunting and transport to market sale and preparation. Structured questionnaires (n = 2374), focus group discussions (n = 20), and key informant interviews (n = 64) were carried out with hunters, food preparers, and vendors across 44 rural villages and three small town markets. Following a social and behavioural change campaign, an endline survey (n = 578) was administered in 12 villages that participated in the study and four control villages for programme evaluation. By investigating behaviours that expose actors to potential disease transmission, it generated evidence-based recommendations for activities and policies to mitigate these risks. Combining social science with veterinary research and practice, the project provided a holistic picture of risk and developed concrete strategies for reducing zoonotic transmission linked to wild meat. Information © The Authors 2026

Background:The impacts of agricultural commercialization on nutrition are highly contested. Agriculture-nutrition linkages are complex and context-dependent and may result in trade-offs between different dietary outcomes. Objectives:This study compared dietary patterns between children in oil palm and non-oil palm-adopting Indigenous households in two oil palm contexts in Indonesia: "plasma" smallholder oil palm in West Kalimantan and oil palm plantation labor in Papua. Methods:Using 24-h dietary recall data from children aged between 12 and 59 mo in West Kalimantan (696 children; 963 recalls across two seasons) and Papua (345 children), we compared quantities of foods consumed at the food group level between children in oil palm and non-oil palm Indigenous households. We also compared the probabilities of consuming ultraprocessed foods. Results:Children living in oil palm-adopting households in West Kalimantan consumed lower quantities of cereals and dark green leafy vegetables (DGLVs), more dairy and eggs, and were more likely to have consumed processed meat and sugar-sweetened beverages. In Papua, children living in households engaged in oil palm plantation labor consumed lower quantities of tubers and fish, but more cereals, DGLVs, and legumes. They were also more likely to have consumed ultraprocessed refined grains and bakery products. Conclusions:Associations between agricultural commercialization and children's diets are context-dependent and may reinforce local dietary transitions. These may include increased consumption of some healthy foods in some contexts, but also be associated with diets linked to negative health outcomes, including reduced consumption of some nutrient-rich foods and increased consumption of ultraprocessed foods.

Wild meat remains a critical source of food security and income in tropical regions, yet it poses significant public health risks due to the potential for zoonotic disease transmission. To better understand these risks, we conducted 2,374 structured interviews with hunters and food preparers across 44 rural villages in Cameroon and surveyed 64 wild meat vendors in four regional markets. This study explores prevailing wild meat handling practices and perceptions of disease risk, providing essential insights for designing targeted interventions to safeguard human health and livelihoods. Hunting patterns varied by ethnicity: a higher percentage of Indigenous Baka reported hunting than Bantu, and Baka hunters were more likely to target bats, a high-risk taxonomic group. Gender, age, and ethnicity also shape behaviours. Women and older individuals were generally less likely to hunt or handle animals exhibiting clinical abnormalities. However, notable differences were observed between ethnic groups. Among the Indigenous Baka, women frequently participated in hunting, particularly by setting snares, whereas Bantu women seldom did so. Across both groups, women were more likely than men to take home carcasses found dead and to hunt small mammals such as rodents. These distinctions highlight how gendered and cultural norms influence patterns of wildlife contact and exposure to zoonotic risk. Hygiene standards during the handling and processing of wild meat were generally very low. Fewer than 1% of household respondents reported using any protective equipment, and only 6% cleaned butchering surfaces with soap. A substantial number admitted to consuming or selling meat from animals that appeared visibly diseased, exhibiting signs such as abnormal organs, discolouration, or unusual odours. Injuries sustained during butchering were also commonly reported, further compounding health risks. Concern about disease was relatively low, reported by only 14.7% of households. However, it was associated with a modest increase in the likelihood of handwashing (by 5 percentage points) and a more substantial increase in the possibility of avoiding contact with dead animals (by 16 percentage points). Ethnic and gender differences influenced both concerns about disease risk and behaviours. These findings highlight the importance of designing public health strategies grounded in local sociocultural realities, aimed at reducing zoonotic risk while safeguarding livelihoods and respecting the economic and cultural roles that wild meat plays within communities.

Landscape approaches mobilize stakeholders across sectors and scales to negotiate development-conservation trade-offs and land-use allocation. Building on the concept of earth system justice, we examine how efforts to operationalize such approaches in Ghana, Zambia and Indonesia advance landscape justice. We observed contributions to procedural, recognitional and intergenerational justice, while interspecies justice remains overlooked. Yet, power asymmetries, exclusionary practices and institutional constraints hinder progress towards intragenerational and substantive-distributive, corrective, restorative and transformative justice. In contexts lacking commitment to transformative change, trade-offs are inevitable. Pursuing incremental change rather than 'perfect' justice may represent a second-best but more realistic pathway towards just landscape governance.

While human activities are driving widespread declines in wildlife populations1,2, in Central Africa, the meat of wild animals, or wild meat, represents a major component of the diets of millions of people3. To halt faunal degradation while ensuring sustainable use of wildlife, it is crucial to understand the scale and drivers of wild meat consumption. Here, using data from over 12,000 households from 252 locations in Central Africa, we show that wild meat is a fundamental component of the diets of rural populations, accounting for 20% of the recommended daily protein intake, compared with 13% and 6% for those living in towns and cities. We estimate that the total annual biomass of wild meat consumed in Central Africa increased from 0.73 million to 1.10 million tonnes between 2000 and 2022, with increasing demand from towns and cities. To ensure that wild meat is available to rural communities, in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals4 and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework5, reducing wild meat consumption in urban metropolises is key. While our results are based on the most comprehensive dataset available, the geographical coverage is incomplete and the dataset represents a minimal fraction of the entire population of Central Africa. Targeted studies are needed to validate our model and assess critical areas of intervention.

Ghana initiated community resource management areas (CREMAs) as a community-based natural management approach to give local communities the right and power to manage natural resources within their territorial boundaries. The expectation is that communities and their environment would prosper through more equitable landscape governance and sustainable use of natural resources. However, the challenges to achieving full functionality of CREMA and expected results, particularly in the Western Wildlife Corridor in northern Ghana, raise questions about the governance actors' capacity. Therefore, this study aims to assess the capacity of actors to take ownership of and lead the governance processes implied by the CREMA approach. Based on focus group discussions and individual interviews, we found that the capacities of the CREMA governance bodies are weak to implement the CREMA approach effectively. The lack of knowledge and technical skills to support multi-actor processes, the weak collaboration between actors, and the lack of sustainable financial inflows and livelihood support are key challenges to be addressed for better CREMA performance. Despite these constraints, local actors' enthusiasm and willingness to engage more actively in the governance of their landscape constitute an opportunity for an improved implementation of the CREMA approach. We suggest that initiatives to strengthen the technical and financial capacities of governance bodies and raise awareness among the local population are necessary to improve the functioning and performance of CREMAs. In addition, actions to improve the livelihoods of local communities will enhance the mobilization and engagement of social groups in the implementation of the CREMA concept.

Amazonia is the largest 1 and the most species-rich tropical forest region on Earth 2 , where hundreds of Indigenous cultures and thousands of animal species have interacted over millennia 3,4 . Although Amazonia offers a unique context to appraise the value of wildlife as a source of food to millions of rural inhabitants, the diversity, geographic extent, volumes and nutritional value of harvested wild meat are unknown. Here, leveraging a dataset comprising 447,438 animals hunted across 625 rural localities, we estimate an annual extraction of 0.57 Mt of undressed animal biomass across Amazonia, equivalent to 0.34 Mt of edible wild meat. Just 20 out of 174 taxa account for 72% of all animals hunted and 84% of the overall biomass extracted. We show that this amount of wild meat can meet nearly half of protein and iron dietary requirements for rural peoples, along with a substantial portion of their needs for B vitamins (18–126%) and zinc (23%). However, wild meat productivity is likely to have decreased by 67% in nearly 500,000 km² of highly deforested areas of Amazonia. Furthermore, the availability of wild meat per capita decreases significantly in areas with higher human population, greater proximity to cities, and more extensive deforestation. These findings highlight the urgent need to preserve the forest to safeguard biodiversity and traditional wild meat food systems, which will be essential for ensuring Amazonian peoples’ well-being and achieving several of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 5 .

The Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) marked a renewed commitment to addressing the global biodiversity crisis. This framework of four goals and 23 interim targets is intended to guide and accelerate conservation efforts over the next 25 years and is more ambitious than its predecessor, the Aichi 2020 targets. However, the pursuit of multilateral agreements is dependent upon national pledges, and the limited success of the Aichi targets shows that national pledges are of little worth without aligned (sub)national action. We assessed the submitted National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans of several member countries to determine their alignment with the bold ambition of the GBF. We find a lack of alignment between the GBF and country submissions across many targets, with the notable exception of Target 3-commonly interpreted as increasing protected area coverage to 30% by 2030. Reflecting on the submissions, recent developments, and our collective experience, we outline key considerations that could help guide future submissions and implementation strategies. We caution against cherry-picking specific targets, highlighting that an overemphasis on Target 3 will fail to achieve the overarching vision of living in harmony with nature. This requires a more holistic and inclusive approach to conservation and a focus on the full suite of GBF targets.

Livelihoods have changed dramatically over the past decade in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). These shifts are happening in tandem with shifts in individual and household food choice behaviors. This scoping review aimed to identify and characterize mechanisms through which livelihood changes could affect food choice behaviors in LMIC, including behaviors relating to food production, acquisition, preparation, distribution, and consumption. A literature search was conducted using 4 databases: PubMed, PsycInfo, AGRICOLA, and Embase. The search was further enhanced by expert solicitations. Studies were included if they measured or focused on a livelihood change, described or assessed a change in ≥1 food choice behavior, and focused on LMIC. Studies were excluded if they focused on migration from LMIC to a high-income country. Of the 433 articles that were identified, 53 met the inclusion criteria. Five mechanisms of how livelihood change can affect food choice were identified: occupation, locality, time, income, and social relations. Changes in occupation altered the balance of the availability and affordability of foods in local food environments compared with individual food production. Changes in location, time use, and income influenced where food was purchased, what types of foods were acquired, and how or where foods were prepared. Additionally, changes in social relationships and norms led to expanded food preferences, particularly among urban populations. Time limitations and higher discretionary income were associated with consumption of ultraprocessed foods. Understanding the relationships between the changes in livelihood occuring in LMIC and food choices of households in these countries can inform the development of policies, programs, and other actions to promote sustainable healthy diets and planetary health.

Balancing forest conservation and agricultural production is essential for a sustainable future. Here we review the scientific evidence for the relationships between forests and agricultural productivity across different scales, summarizing the contexts under which trees limit, maintain, or enhance agricultural productivity. While synergies and trade-offs occur at local scales, a regional-scale meta-analysis reveals mostly positive effects of forests and average national-level agricultural productivity is projected to decline once forest cover loss exceeds ~48%, with a 95% confidence interval [44, 50]. Given that 70% of countries have already reached or exceeded this threshold, implementing targeted forest conservation and restoration policies may be critical to optimize national food security. At a global scale, mass deforestation remains a key threat to international food production.

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework marked a renewed commitment to address the biodiversity crisis. This framework, consisting of four goals and 23 targets which are intended to guide conservation efforts for the next thirty years, displays an enhanced level of ambition compared to its predecessor. However, the pursuit of multilateral agreements is dependent upon national pledges, and national pledges are of little worth without subsequent sub-national action. We assess the currently submitted National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans of member countries to determine the extent to which they align with the bold ambition of the GBF. We find a lack of consistency between the GBF and country submissions across many targets, with the notable exception being target 3 – to increase protected area coverage to 30% by 2030. Reflecting on the current submissions, we draw on recent developments and our own experience to outline key considerations that could help guide GBF implementation efforts. We caution against cherry-picking of specific targets to suit political-economic agendas, highlight that an overemphasis on Target 3 alone will not lead to the desired state of living in harmony with nature, and that to do so actually requires a more holistic and inclusive approach to conservation.

The Western Wildlife Corridor (WWC) in Ghana’s Northern Savannah ecological zone is a contested landscape where efforts to reverse widespread environmental degradation often conflict with local livelihood concerns and broader development objectives. Despite policy measures to devolve natural resource decision-making authority, poor environmental management, persistent socioeconomic challenges, and increasingly limited livelihood opportunities for people living within the corridor prevail. This study investigates environmental degradation in the WWC and natural resource governance using information on stakeholder perceptions from stakeholder workshops, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. We also explore how natural resource management might be strengthened to better deliver social, economic, and environmental goals. We found that despite a history of contestation, stakeholders were able to agree upon specific issues of common concern and generate a collaborative vision for the WWC landscape. Transitioning toward such a vision requires significant investment in strengthening current governance structures and building natural resource management capacity within the corridor and beyond. Furthermore, persistent challenges of conflicting stakeholder objectives and issues related to coordination, corruption, and non-inclusion in decision-making about natural resources must be addressed to advance progress. Stakeholders were able to formulate specific recommendations and a participatory theory of change to inform the development of a sustainable landscape management plan and future evidence-based policy that could steer the WWC toward a more resilient and multifunctional system that equitably supports livelihoods, biodiversity, and wider economic development. The methods for inclusive engagement in environmental decision-making are extrapolatable to other contexts facing similar social-environmental challenges.

Wild meat and freshwater fish are widely consumed in the Congo Basin, but in some areas, they are at risk of disappearing due to unsustainable hunting and fishing and changes in their habitat. Wild meat is also at risk of being eliminated from local diets due to potential policy changes such as wild meat bans. In order to understand the impacts of these potential changes on nutrition and to design appropriate policies, it is critical to understand the contributions of these wild animal source foods to individual nutrient intake. In this study, we focus on young children who are among the most nutritionally vulnerable. We use dietary intake data from children between 1 and 5 years of age from four sites in Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo to estimate the contributions of wild meat and local fish to their dietary intake of protein, iron, zinc and vitamin B12 and to meeting nutritional recommendations. Together, wild meat and fish comprised an average of 74% (rainy season) and 61% (dry season) of the quantities of animal source foods consumed by children across the sites. They contributed 23% of protein intake; 11% of iron intake; 14% of zinc intake; and 57% of Vitamin B12 intake on average across sites and seasons to those children who consumed these foods. Results from regression analysis showed that wealth was not associated with consumption of wild meat or of local fish but was positively associated with consumption of domestic meat. Reduced access to wild meat and fish from restrictions on hunting and fishing or due to unsustainable practices could have negative consequences on child nutrition in the Congo Basin. These would likely be greater for poorer households since they have fewer ASF alternatives compared to wealthier households.Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The sedentarization of Pygmies in the Congo Basin has triggered a profound transformation in their traditional lifestyles, particularly affecting dietary habits and food consumption. We employed 24-hour dietary recalls in 10 sedentarized Baka Pygmy villages in southeastern Cameroon, gathering data on diet composition, diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score, HDDS), and nutrient intake per adult male equivalent (AME) from 67 homes (28% of all households). Our findings revealed that 62% of consumed foods were agricultural produce, 29% were locally produced or purchased products, and the remaining 9% comprised items sourced or hunted from the wild. The average HDDS per village was low (4.1±1.56) and mean total energy intake was 1734.9±1,031.8 kcal/AME, with significant contributions from cultivated foods. There was a negative correlation between the consumption of cultivated and wild foods. Moreover, a considerable proportion of households (78.7%, ranging from 22.4% to 97%) exhibited nutrient consumption below the lower 95% uncertainty interval found in a Cameroonian nutrient supply study. Additionally, 78.3% of respondents fell below WHO/FAO recommendations for 21 nutrients, even after adjusting for the Baka's shorter stature. This high prevalence of insufficient nutrient intake underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions to address nutritional deficiencies within this population. We show Baka households rely more on cultivated foods and are less dependent on wild sources. Understanding the profound transformation in dietary patterns and its repercussions on the health and overall well-being of the studied marginalized Indigenous communities is pivotal in devising strategies to enhance their survival. This shift in dietary profiles often stems from complex factors, including socioeconomic challenges, environmental changes, and cultural shifts. To address these issues effectively, a comprehensive approach that integrates cultural sensitivity, community engagement, and sustainable practices is imperative.

This study examines food consumption patterns in Indonesia across urban, rural, and forested areas with varying levels of tree cover loss (TCL). Using household food consumption data from the National Socio-economic Survey in 2008 and 2017, and data from the Global Forest Watch website, we identify differences in food consumption patterns in urban, rural, and forested areas with high and low TCL. The results indicate a dietary transition is occurring in Indonesia, characterized by increased consumption of wheat, chicken, fish, sugar-sweetened beverages, processed, ultra-processed, and ready-to-eat foods, and a decline in the consumption of green leafy vegetables and fresh legumes across all area categories. Diet quality is declining in all area categories, however, urban areas showed the most accelerated decline, with declining dietary diversity, decreasing consumption of healthy foods, while increasing consumption of less healthy foods and the highest consumption of ultra-processed foods. Furthermore, foods consumed more in urban (vs. rural) and high-TCL (vs. low-TCL) areas, such as wheat, broiler chicken, dairy, and packaged foods, are associated with modern diets and sourced from farther away, indicating accelerated modernization and delocalization of diets. Conversely, foods consumed more in rural and low-TCL areas, such as traditional staple foods, free-range eggs, and dark green leafy vegetables, are considered more locally sourced and traditional. We conclude that dietary transitions occur across all regions, but the modernization of diets is more accelerated in urban and high-TCL areas. Given the mixed health consequences of modern diets, policies should anticipate negative impacts while preserving positive aspects.

Health crises have raised awareness of the links between forests and human health. For example, outbreaks of Ebola virus and hypotheses about the origins of SARS-CoV-2 have highlighted the risk of zoonotic spillover events from forest-dwelling animals.1,2 Likewise, forest fires in Australia (2019–20), the Amazon rainforest (2019), and southeast Asia (2015) have drawn attention to the respiratory health effects on populations exposed to smoke and haze.3 Other links between forests and health, such as the role of forests in mitigating natural disasters4 and regulating infectious disease vectors,5 are well established but less well known outside the scientific community.

1.Hunting, trade, and consumption of wildlife present a serious threat to global public health as it places humans in close contact with zoonotic pathogens.2.We systematically mapped the literature on wild meat handling and zoonotic disease transmission (1996-2022) using the online database Web of Science and Google search engine and identified 6229 articles out of which 253 were finally selected for use in our mapping review; 51 of these provided specific information regarding transmission risks.3.The reviewed studies reported 43 zoonotic pathogens (17 bacteria, 15 viruses, and 11 parasites) that could pose a potential risk to human health.4.Sixteen hygienic and sanitary behaviours were described in the reviewed studies. Disease surveillance was the most frequent. Most of the surveillance studies were carried out in Europe and were less common in the tropics.5.To inform policy and practical actions effectively, it is imperative to broaden our understanding of how various mitigation behaviours can be employed to minimize the risk of transmission.