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Sediment cores from Karagan Lagoon in southeastern Sri Lanka retrieved deposits from the A.D. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and older similar deposits that provide evidence for a tsunami 2417 +/- 152 cal. (calendar) yr B.P. to 2925 +/- 98 cal. yr B.P., and for six tsunamis between 4064 +/- 128 cal. yr B.P. and 6665 +/- 110 cal. yr B.P., a period for which the sediment record appears continuous. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the recurrence interval is variable, ranging from 181-517 yr to 1045 +/- 334 yr, with a mean recurrence interval of 434 +/- 40 yr during the ca. 4000-7000 cal. yr B.P. continuous interval. Assuming that these tsunamis were generated by giant earthquakes along the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone, a reasonable assumption for this far-field transoceanic location, this record extends the giant-earthquake history for the Indian Ocean region. The longest recurrence interval of more than 1000 yr implies that earthquakes along the subduction zone may reach twice the size of the 2004 earthquake.

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami highlighted the need to better understand the dynamics of the South Asian coastlines. Very little knowledge on paleo-coastal variability hinders the development of a paleo-tsunami chronology of the western Bay of Bengal. Also, limited sea level records for the southern Bay of Bengal are remarkably different from rest of the Indian Ocean due to alternating highstands and lowstands during mid-late Holocene.This study was undertaken to recognize how the coastal environment in tectonically stable eastern and southeastern coasts of Sri Lanka changed during mid-late Holocene and to derive evidence of sea level variability. Sediment cores were collected from Kirinda and Panama estuaries, Okanda lagoon and Vakarai beach ridge plain, situated on the eastern and southeastern coasts of Sri Lanka. Physical and chemical variations in sediments, caused by the coastal environmental changes occurred due to fluctuating eustatic sea level, were determined using X-ray fluorescence, visible reflectance, magnetic susceptibility and grain size. Chronology of events were developed using AMS C-14 dates on bulk organic matter, wood, inorganic carbonate and mollusk shells.Results suggest that key periods of transition in the coastal environment in the studied area occurred between about 7300 and 3000 BP. Submergence of coastal environments by mid-Holocene transgression began around 7300 BP. Barrier development initiated at the end of the submergence phase around 4900 BP. Onset of beach ridge development in areas with high sediment supply took place around 4000 BP and continued later than 2400 BP. Marine influence ended around 3000 BP.These coastal environmental changes suggest that Holocene transgression, which started flooding southeastern coastal lowlands, either slowed or the sea level stabilized around 4900 BP. Sea level fell down to its present level at around 3000 BP by the subsequent slow regression. Some cores carry evidence for a possible pause in the transgression or a short lowstand that ended around 5200 BR (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

On the evening of March 28, 2005 at 11:09 p.m. local time (16:09 UTC), a large earthquake occurred offshore of West Sumatra, Indonesia. With a moment magnitude ( M w ) of 8.6, the event caused substantial shaking damage and land level changes between Simeulue Island in the north and the Batu Islands in the south. The earthquake also generated a tsunami, which was observed throughout the source region as well as on distant tide gauges. While the tsunami was not as extreme as the tsunami of December 26th, 2004, it did cause significant flooding and damage at some locations. The spatial and temporal proximity of the two events led to a unique set of observational data from the earthquake and tsunami as well as insights relevant to tsunami hazard planning and education efforts.

The 2006 western Java tsunami deposited a discontinuous sheet of sand up to 20 cm thick, flooded coastal southern Java to a depth of at least 8 m and inundated up to 1 km inland. In most places the primarily heavy mineral sand sheet is normally graded, and in some it contains complex internal stratigraphy. Structures within the sand sheet probably record the passage of up to two individual waves, a point noted in eyewitness accounts. We studied the 2006 tsunami deposits in detail along a flow parallel transect about 750 m long, 15 km east of Cilacap. The tsunami deposit first becomes discernable from the underlying sediment 70 m from the shoreline. From 75 to 300 m inland the deposit has been laid down in rice paddies, and maintains a thickness of 10–20 cm. Landward of 300 m the deposit thins dramatically, reaching 1 mm by 450 m inland. From 450 m to the edge of deposition (around 700 m inland) the deposit remains <1 mm thick. Deposition generally attended inundation—along the transect, the tsunami deposited sand to within about 40 m of the inundation limit. The thicker part of the deposit contains primarily sand indistinguishable from that found on the beach 3 weeks after the event, but after about 450 m (and roughly coinciding with the decrease in thickness) the tsunami sediment shifts to become more like the underlying paddy soil than the beach sand. Grain sizes within the deposit tend to fine upward and landward, although overall upward fining takes place in two discrete pulses, with an initial section of inverse grading followed by a section of normal grading. The two inversely graded sections are also density graded, with denser grains at the base, and less dense grains at the top. The two normally graded sections show no trends in density. The inversely graded sections show high density sediment to the base and become less dense upward and represents traction carpet flows at the base of the tsunami. These are suggestive of high shear rates in the flow. Because of the grain sorting in the traction carpet, the landward-fining trends usually seen in tsunami deposits are masked, although lateral changes of mean sediment grain size along the transect do show overall landward fining, with more variation as the deposit tapers off. The deposit is also thicker in the more seaward portions than would be produced by tsunamis lacking traction carpets.

As part of the Early Farming in Dalmatia Project, an interdisciplinary effort toward understanding the origins of European agriculture, we are performing a site-specific geoarchaeological study of the Middle Neolithic Danilo Bitinj site and the Early and Middle Neolithic Pokrovnik site. Here we present the soil description and analysis for Danilo Bitinj. The site, farmed for at least 7000 years, is located at the center of Danilo Polje, a valley in Dalmatia's well-developed karst terrain. Soils both on- and off-site are fine-grained and carbonate-rich. Other measured pedologic properties indicate a stable valley-bottom environment throughout the life of the analyzed solum. The longevity of agriculture corresponds with the high measured calcite content, while electric conductivity and pH measurements indicate a sodic, plant-toxic chemical environment. Soil organic matter stable carbon isotope data indicate a local environment heavily dominated by C(3) plants. Soil carbonate stable carbon and oxygen ratios were also measured, but appear to be out-of-equilibrium with those for organic carbon, and therefore invalid for paleoclimatic interpretation. According to regional paleoclimatic studies, the earliest agricultural occupation at Danilo coincided with a significant drought. This evidence for regional drought is at odds with the on-site isotope data indicating relatively cool, moist conditions. These findings present an interesting scenario in terms of human behavioral ecology: that despite the soil's sodicity, Danilo may have represented a moist and productive resource refuge. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Grain size trends and field observations of an approximately 1100-year-old sand sheet within a salt marsh in Hood Canal at Lynch Cove, Puget Sound, Washington suggest deposition by multiple mechanisms, including liquefaction and tsunami. Because a tsunami has not occurred within Puget Sound during modern times, it is important to study past sedimentary evidence of tsunamis in the geological record to understand where, when, and how often these events may occur at this location. The sand sheet is about 0.24 m thick, overlies tidal-flat mud, and is abruptly capped by freshwater peat. To determine extent, thickness, and grain size trends within the deposit, we gathered 350 core samples using a hand-push auger. A laser diffraction particle analyzer was used to determine grain size from each sand unit collected via coring. Grain size analysis reveals that the sand sheet fines landward and is poorly sorted. Three box cores, sampled at 2.0-cm intervals, reveal upward-fining grain size trends. Sedimentary structures suggesting bedload transport (such as cross-bedding and ripple marks) were not visible either in the field or in X-ray radiographs. Despite local evidence of liquefaction, the Lynch Cove sand sheet is largely consistent with sedimentation patterns observed following modern tsunami events. The Tacoma Fault was seismically active around the time of deposition. The Sunset Beach Fault and landslide, some 4 km south of Lynch Cove, was likely created by movement from the Tacoma Fault. This is the most likely source of tsunami generation at Lynch Cove around 1100 years ago; however, the possibility of submarine landslide-generated tsunami has not been ruled out entirely. Beyond earthquake and submarine landslide activity, other source mechanisms are less likely to produce a wave that could deposit significant amounts of sand after navigating the entire 70 km length of Hood Canal.

The magnitude 8.1 earthquake and subsequent tsunami killed 52 people when it hit the Solomon Islands on 2 April 2007. That number would have likely been considerably higher were it not for the appropriate reaction of the indigenous coastal populations and a helpful physical geography. Buffering coral reefs reflected some wave energy back to sea, reducing the power of the wave. Hills a short distance behind the coastal villages provided accessible havens. Despite this beneficial physiography, immigrant populations died at disproportionately high rates in comparably damaged areas because they did not recognize the signs of the impeding tsunami. The indigenous population of Tapurai, which lacks a steep barrier reef to reflect the incoming energy, experienced a much more powerful wave, and the population suffered heavy losses. Indigenous knowledge as an integral tool in basin wide tsunami warning systems has the potential to mitigate disasters in the near field. Community-based disaster management plans must be cognizant of educating diverse populations that have different understandings of their environment.

Hurricane Katrina (August 23-30, 2005) was one of the costliest and deadliest hurricanes to ever strike the United States, impacting low-lying coastal plains particularly vulnerable to storm surge flooding. Maximum storm surges, overland flow depths, and inundation distances were measured along the Gulf Coast of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The vehicle-based survey was complemented by inspections with the reconnaissance boat along the Gulf Coast and the Mississippi Barrier Islands. The survey covered both the impact on the built and the natural environments. The storm surge peaked to the east of Katrina's path exceeding 10 in in several locations along the Mississippi coastline. The storm surge measurements show that the lower floors of specially designed buildings were damaged by the surge of seawater and associated wave action, while the upper floors sustained minimal wind damage. The storm surge measurements along New Orleans Lakeshore allowed the investigators to exclude overtopping as failure mechanism for the 17th Street outfall canal levee. Hurricane Katrina's storm surge distribution (Category 3 at landfall) is compared against Hurricane Camille's storm surge distribution (Category 5 at landfall). The land loss on the barrier islands and the increased vulnerability of the US Gulf Coast to future hurricane storm surges is discussed.

Sands of time: Traces of recurring tsunamis on Indian Ocean shores Nothing known from written history gave reason to expect the Indian Ocean tsunami that took nearly a quarter million lives on 26 December 2004. That tsunami entered geological history by laying down centimetres of sand on the coastal plains that it overran. Jankaew et al . have now found such sedimentary records of earlier tsunamis preserved in the dark soils of marshy swales at Phra Thong, a barrier island in western Thailand. The cover shows an example from a pit dug there in 2007: the topmost light-coloured layer represents the 2004 tsunami, while a similar layer below records a tsunami in the fourteenth or fifteenth century AD . The ruler divisions are 10 cm long. In a separate study in Aceh, Indonesia, Monecke et al . found the 2004 sand sheet preceded by the deposits of three tsunamis from the past 1,200 years. One of these earlier deposits may match the medieval one found in Thailand. The combined findings suggest that the 2004 tsunami is neither the first nor the last of its kind.

The geologic and economic effects of the 2 April 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake and tsunami are distinctly visible a little more than a year after the event. Coral reef colonies that were sheared off and uplifted are slowly recovering, and many new earthquake‐triggered landslides remain mobile. Large volumes of sediment created by the earthquake and mobilized by the tsunami have been flushed from the lagoons between the reef and shoreline into deeper water, although significant quantities remain on land. Sediment from the lagoons covers piles of shattered coral that the tsunami moved from the lagoons to the base of channels in the barrier reef. These shattered corals have a higher chance of preservation as paleotsunami deposits than the material deposited on land.

Eos, Transactions American Geophysical UnionVolume 89, Issue 18 Full-size IssueFree Access Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union Volume 89, Number 18, 29 April 2008 First published: 21 March 2013 https://doi.org/10.1029/eost2008EO18AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Volume89, Issue1829 April 2008 RelatedInformation

The 17 July 2006 magnitude Mw 7.8 earthquake off the south coast of western Java, Indonesia, generated a tsunami that effected over 300 km of coastline and killed more than 600 people, with locally focused runup heights exceeding 20 m. This slow earthquake was hardly felt on Java, and wind waves breaking masked any preceding withdrawal of the water from the shoreline, making this tsunami difficult to detect before impact. An International Tsunami Survey Team was deployed within one week and the investigation covered more than 600 km of coastline. Measured tsunami heights and run‐up distributions were uniform at 5 to 7 m along 200 km of coast; however there was a pronounced peak on the south coast of Nusa Kambangan, where the tsunami impact carved a sharp trimline in a forest at elevations up to 21 m and 1 km inland. Local flow depth exceeded 8 m along the elevated coastal plain between the beach and the hill slope. We infer that the focused tsunami and runup heights on the island suggest a possible local submarine slump or mass movement.

A sandy deposit from the 1929 Grand Banks tsunami in Newfoundland contains sediment from two distinct sources, one from an inferred gravel shoreline close to the deposit, and one from a sandy dune some 200 m seaward of the deposit. The deposit ranges from 0 to 15 cm thick, and is composed of a bimodal mix of fine and coarse sand. We took approximately 100 core samples of this deposit in an attempt to characterize lateral grain size trends within the sand. Although the coarse fraction does fine with distance inland, the fine fraction does not change size over the study area, and the aggregate grain size changes in no systematic way.We interpret this deposit to represent the mixture of material picked up at the bar with material picked up at the gravel shoreline. The bar material does not fine in part because it is already fairly well sorted, but also because it is far from its source. The shoreline material, on the other hand, is poorly sorted so that the tsunami took only those grains it was capable of moving, and deposited them near their source.We estimated the size of the tsunami by determining the flow depth-flow velocity combinations required to advect sand from the bar to the back of the deposit, and by estimating the shear velocity required for motion of the largest grain we found during our survey. This modeling indicates an average flow depth of about 2.5-2.8 m over the area, at a flow velocity of 1.9-2.2 m/s. This estimate compares well with eyewitness accounts of a maximum flow depth of 7 m at the shoreline if our estimate represents an average over the whole study area.. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.