Renewable energy sources (RES) will be the main source of energy in the future. The main goal of this study was to analyze and elaborate a prognosis for the development of renewable energy sources in Poland. Specific objectives included: evaluation of the prognosis developed as part of Poland’s energy policy (PEP), development of our own forecast of the share of renewable energy sources, and comparison of the forecast developed for Poland’s energy policy with our own forecast. We have also elaborated a hypothesis that the prognosis for the development of renewable energy sources for Poland prepared by PEP, and our own prognosis based on Autoregressive Moving Average (ARIMA) models, are both promising and confirm the development of the renewable energy sector in the future. We used the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test as well as ARIMA models. Moreover, we compared own RES prognosis with prognoses proposed by the European Union. Cumulative capital expenditures from 2021 to 2040, including financing costs, will amount to PLN 300 billion, of which PLN 195 billion go towards renewable energy sources alone. Photovoltaics (PV) will account for the largest share of energy production, reaching 16 GW of achievable capacity, followed by onshore wind farms with 9.7 GW. Solid biomass accounts for the largest share of renewable energy consumption in heating and cooling, although its share is gradually decreasing from 98.6% in 2005 to a projected 75% in 2040. Heat pumps, which had no share in 2005, are expected to increase their share to a projected 11.8% in 2040. Solar technology has also increased from 0% in 2005 to a projected 5.6% in 2040. The share of renewable energy in this energy sector is increasing from 22.1% in 2020 to 31.8% in 2030 and 39.7% in 2040. The prognosis elaborated by PEP for 2025–2040 are very optimistic and the prognosis elaborated based on ARIMA models is also promising. Both prognoses predict the development of RES in the future and the transformation of the energy sector in Poland.

The aim of this article is to identify how research on smart buildings has evolved in the context of the energy transition, with particular emphasis on energy flexibility, grid interaction, market integration, and policy barriers. The study addresses a gap in previous reviews, which have often focused on individual technological domains, building automation, or smart-readiness assessment, while paying less attention to the conditions under which smart buildings become active energy-system resources. A systematic review protocol based on the PRISMA logic was combined with bibliometric mapping and qualitative synthesis. Bibliographic data were retrieved from Scopus on 28 February 2026 and covered 663 English-language journal articles published between 2015 and February 2026. A core set of 63 studies was selected through explicit cluster-based and relevance-based criteria for in-depth qualitative synthesis. The results show a gradual shift from component-level efficiency research towards system-level studies in which smart buildings are analyzed as flexible demand-side assets, distributed energy nodes, and participants in emerging market mechanisms. At the same time, the evidence base remains uneven: many studies rely on simulation or case-specific modeling, while empirical validation, interoperability, occupant behavior, business models, and regulatory implementation remain less mature. The article contributes by distinguishing observed bibliometric patterns from conceptual interpretation and by integrating technological, economic, behavioral, and regulatory evidence into a framework explaining the persistent implementation gap in smart building deployment.

Energy consumption remains one of the key issues in contemporary scientific and political debate within the European Union, as it combines concerns regarding energy security, economic competitiveness, social costs and environmental pressures [...]

The aim of this article was to determine the impact of energy intensity, renewable energy consumption, and globalization on environmental degradation in SAARC countries. Utilizing both CO2 emissions and the ecological footprint (EF) as environmental indicators, the research provides a comprehensive evaluation of sustainability trends. The analysis employs the Method of Moments Quantile Regression (MMQR) technique to account for heterogeneity across different levels of environmental degradation. The study covered the period 2000–2021. The empirical results indicate that renewable energy usage significantly reduces both CO2 emissions and EF, emphasizing the necessity of expanding clean energy sources in SAARC nations. Conversely, energy intensity exacerbates environmental degradation, highlighting the urgent need for efficiency improvements. Globalization exerts mixed effects, with economic integration increasing CO2 emissions while reducing ecological footprint, suggesting a complex interplay between industrialization and sustainability. Additionally, economic growth consistently worsens environmental quality across all quantiles, reinforcing the challenge of balancing development with ecological preservation. The findings emphasize the necessity of policy interventions to promote renewable energy adoption, enhance energy efficiency, and leverage globalization for sustainable development. Future research should explore broader environmental indicators and adopt advanced econometric techniques to deepen insights into sustainable energy transitions in SAARC countries.

Energy consumption in European Union member states has become a particularly significant issue in recent years, as it combines several parallel challenges: ensuring the supply is secure, decarbonising, electrifying new sectors of the economy, reducing energy poverty, and improving energy efficiency [...]

The issue of energy consumption remains a key research topic in the modern economy, as it combines technological, environmental, economic and social dimensions [...]

This study explores the relationship between renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, economic growth (EG), and ecological footprint (EF) in Poland’s top 18 energy-importing countries from 2000 to 2022. While the energy-growth-environment nexus is well-studied, limited attention has been paid to how a single major energy-exporting country influences sustainability in its trade partners, a gap this study aims to fill. A panel dataset was constructed using five key variables: real GDP per capita, Poland’s fuel exports, ecological footprint per capita, renewable energy consumption, and primary energy consumption per capita. Methodologically, the study employs panel cointegration techniques, including FMOL and DOLS estimators for long-run analysis, as well as the VECM and Granger causality tests for the short run. The study’s main contribution lies in its novel focus on Poland’s export influence and the application of advanced econometric models to examine long-run and short-run effects. Results indicate a stable long-run cointegration relationship. Specifically, a 1% increase in renewable energy use is associated with a 0.0219% rise in GDP per capita. Additionally, Poland’s fuel exports and ecological footprint positively impact growth, whereas primary energy use is statistically insignificant. These findings offer practical implications for policymakers in Poland and its trading partners aiming to align energy trade with sustainability goals.

South Asia faces the dual challenge of sustaining rapid economic growth while managing severe ecological pressures. This study explores the relationship between Ecological Footprint (EF), Financial Development (FD), Economic Growth (GDP), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and Political Stability (PS) in SAARC countries from 2000 to 2020. Using a Panel Vector Autoregression (PVAR) combined with a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM), the analysis captures both short-run dynamics and long-run equilibrium relationships, addressing endogeneity among variables. Results reveal that EF negatively correlates with FD, GDP, and FDI, while showing a positive association with PS. Cointegration tests using dynamic and fully modified ordinary least squares confirm long-term relationships between the variables. Impulse response functions illustrate how shocks to one variable affect others over time, highlighting complex interactions. Granger causality tests suggest limited short-term causal links, reflecting the multifaceted nature of these relationships. This research is particularly relevant as SAARC countries face the dual challenge of sustaining rapid economic growth while mitigating ecological pressures. The study advances the literature by explicitly integrating political stability into the environmental–economic nexus, a factor often overlooked in earlier regional analyses. By providing empirical evidence on the joint role of economic, financial, and political drivers of ecological sustainability, the paper contributes both to academic debate and to the design of more balanced policy frameworks for sustainable development in South Asia.

Plant biomass is playing a key role in the development of renewable energy sources. The share of biomass in renewable energy sources is about 70% in Poland and more than 40% in the European Union (EU). To assess the competitive position of farms selling plant biomass including straw and wood, including both future opportunities and threats, we conducted research on 185 farms in 2022. The aim of the research was to assess the usage of plant biomass, with the aim of increasing its position compared to other renewable energy sources. We used tabular, graph and descriptive methods to present the research results. Moreover, the Dornik–Hansen test (p = 0.003), Shapiro–Wilk test (p = 0.0017), Lilliefors test (p = 0.000) and Jargue–Berra test (p = 0.008) results show the significance of the research. The most important factors shaping the increased prices of biomass were the availability of raw materials on the market, totaling 41.1%, and calorific value, totaling 17.6%. Looking at the data, it can be seen that the most popular renewable energy technologies in which respondents plan to invest is photovoltaics (57.8%) and biomass (17.6%). According to the respondents, the most profitable renewable energy sources are photovoltaics (38.4%), wind energy (23%) and biogas (16.2%). Farmers also pointed out the most ecologically friendly, renewable energy sources. According to the respondents, the most ecologically friendly, renewable energy sources were wind energy (32.2%), photovoltaics (25.3%) and water energy plants (20.7%). The most frequently indicated limitations of biomass production were the long payback period (19.2%) and high investment costs (18.9%). The most important threat to biomass production was the shortage of arable land (32.5%) and poor farmland (23.5%). These results show that policymakers should adjust laws to encourage farmers to invest in biomass as a renewable energy source. Photovoltaics, which is considered a very clean renewable energy source, faces a big task in cleaning rural areas.

Evaluating the competitiveness of electricity is the most important issue. The main aim of this study was to determine the cost-effectiveness of renewable energy production in the European Union (EU) using the levelized cost competitiveness of renewable energy sources. The weighted average cost of capital (WACC) for onshore wind was calculated for European (EU) countries. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) approach was used to evaluate the energy costs of renewable energy sources. Energy production costs were compared across different technologies. The capital expenditures associated with solar PV are expected to decrease from USD 810/kW in 2021 to USD 360/kW in 2050. The power factor will remain stable at 14% during the analyzed period. Fuel, CO2, and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs will be maintained at USD 10/MWh at all three time points of the analysis (2021, 2030, and 2050), whereas the LCOE will decrease from USD 50/MWh in 2021 to USD 25/MWh in 2050. The capital expenditures associated with onshore wind energy will decrease from USD 1590/kW in 2021 to USD 1410/kW in 2050. The power factor will increase from 29% to 30%, and fuel, CO2, and O&M costs will reach USD 15/MWh in all three years. The LCOE will decrease from USD 55/MWh in 2021 to USD 45/MWh in 2050. In offshore wind projects, capital expenditures are expected to decrease considerably from USD 3040/kW in 2021 to USD 1320/kW in 2050.

The wheat market is one of the most important agricultural markets and plays a key role in global food security. The aim of the paper is to present changes in the wheat market worldwide, in the European Union (EU) and in Poland. To assess the wheat market, changes in crop area, yields and production were analyzed using FAOSTAT data for the period 1961-2025 (64 years of observations). The Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test and the Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH) model were applied. The results show that wheat production worldwide increased from 627 million tonnes in 2005 to 799 million tonnes in 2025 (27%). In the period 2005-2025, wheat production in the EU increased from 121.1 million tonnes to 134.6 million tonnes (11%). In Poland, wheat production in 2005-2025 increased from 8.77 million tonnes to 12.85 million tonnes (46%). Using statistical tools and forecasting methods, it was shown that global wheat production will increase by 6.9% in 2026-2035. In 2035, wheat production worldwide is projected to reach 865.92 million tonnes, up from 809.99 million tonnes in 2026.

Biomass is the primary source of renewable energy in Poland. Its share in renewable energy production in Poland has decreased in recent years, but it still maintains a nearly 70% share. Poland has extensive forest and straw resources, such as pellets, which can be used for stable biomass production. The main objective of this research was to understand the potential of plant biomass production for energy purposes in Poland and other European Union (EU) countries in terms of sustainable development. The period of analysis covered 2000–2022. Secondary data from Statistical Poland and Eurostat were used. The primary research method was the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test, which aimed to check the stationarity of stable biomass. Moreover, we calculated the Vector Auto-Regressive (VAR) model, which was used to develop the forecast. The indigenous production of solid biomass in 2022 decreased to 363,195 TJ, while in 2018, it was 384,914 TJ. Our prognosis confirms that biomass will increase. The prognosis based on the VAR model shows an increase from 365,395 TJ in 2023 to 379,795 (TJ) in 2032. Such countries as France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Finland have a bigger potential for solid biomass production from forests because of their higher area. As a result, Poland’s biomass production competitiveness is varied when compared to other EU nations; it is lower for nations with a large forest share and greater for those with a low forest cover. The two main benefits of producing solid biomass are its easy storage and carbon dioxide (CO2) neutrality. The main advantage is that solid biomass preserves biodiversity, maintains soil fertility, and improves soil quality while lowering greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollutants. The ability to leave added value locally and generate new jobs, particularly in troubled areas, is the largest social advantage of sustained biomass production.

Solid biomass (agro-residue) is the most important source of renewable energy. The accelerating impacts of climate change and global population growth contribute to air pollution through the use of fossil fuels. These processes increase the demand for energy. The European Union has adopted a climate action plan to address the above challenges. The main aim of this study was to assess the economic performance of the producers of biomass for energy generation in Poland. The detailed objectives were to determine land resources in the studied agricultural farms and to determine the value of fixed and current assets in the analyzed farms. We used questionnaires as the main method to collect data. Purposive sampling was used to choose the farms. We conducted various tests to analyze the revenues from biomass sales and their normality, such as the Dornik–Hansen test, the Shapiro–Wilk test, the Liliefors test, and the Jargue–Berra statistical test. Moreover, we conducted regression analysis to find factors that are the basis for the economic performance (incomes) of farms that sell biomass. Results: This study demonstrated that biomass sales had a minor impact on the performance of agricultural farms, but they enabled farmers to maintain their position on the market. The economic analysis was carried out on a representative group of Polish agricultural farms, taking into account fixed and current assets, land use, production structure, and employment. The findings indicate that a higher income from biomass sales was generally associated with better economic results per farm and per employee, although not always per hectare of land. This suggests that capital intensity and strategic resource management play a crucial role in the profitability of bioenergy-oriented agricultural production. Conclusions: We concluded that biomass sales had a negligible influence on farm income. But a small income from biomass sales could affect a farm’s economic viability.

Purpose:The aim of the article is to determine changes in the preferences of institutional automotive consumers as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.The specific objectives are characterise the car fleet of enterprises, showing preferences in car fleet management in enterprises before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, presenting plans and intentions in the field of car fleet management in enterprises.Design/Methodology/Approach: Companies with a car fleet and operating in Poland were deliberately selected for the study.Then, 50 enterprises were selected for testing by random sampling.At the same time, the participation of enterprises operating in various sectors of activity (production, trade, services, tourism) was ensured.The data sources were 50 surveys conducted in June 2023 in the form of a direct telephone interview.Findings: As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, 24% of businesses struggled to identify ways to finance car purchases.After the pandemic, the percentage of companies holding back on car purchases increased.They were more likely to seek to extend the life of the vehicle and to pay attention to how employees drive.The largest percentage of companies indicated that changes in car fleet management as a result of the pandemic were sustained.Practical implications: The results will fill in the gap concerning changes in car fleet management during the crisis.

Portugal and occupied by more than 1/3 of forests. Portuguese legislation on forests has progressively changed over time, with measures being created that take the Portuguese panorama and problems into account. Portuguese forests present several advantages at a humanitarian, economic and social level. Their contribution to the national economy forest production and foreign trade, forest energy, recreational and tourism. In the Portuguese context, fires are the biggest problem that Portugal faces today. Rays, Arsonists, Burning for cleaning, Smokers and Country fires are examples of the causes. There is a certain impact on time and space indirectly and directly. Fuel reduction in strategic locations and changes in behaviors by the population could be the solution for what we have been looking for.

The main aim of the article was to contribute to the understanding of the current panorama of sustainable development in Portugal, while pointing out possible directions for future research and the improvement of sustainability strategies in the country. The article uses descriptive methods. The main sources of information were the literature on the subject, closely related to the development of sustainable development and economic aspects in Portugal. The analysis shows that the standard of living of the Portuguese has improved. An increase in investment in education was also noted. In terms of social development, a decrease in the number of births was observed in the years 2010-2020, which proves the aging of society.

Oil industry is developing well in Poland. This study aimed to examine the development of the Polish oil industry after joining the European Union. The following questions were asked: What were the changes in the consumption of vegetable oils in Poland after EU enlargement in 2004? How did the production of vegetable oil change in Poland after EU enlargement in 2004? And has the liquidity of the Polish oil industry changed after EU enlargement in 2004? First, the changes in the oil industry were evaluated. This research proved the development of the fat industry. We used the regression model to analyze the impact of chosen factors on the economic situation of the oil industry in Poland. Rapeseed is the main source of oil for the edible oil and biodiesel industry. High prices of rapeseed increased the sown area of rapeseed. The production of crude rapeseed oil changed from 520.1 thousand tons in 2005 to 1440 thousand tons in 2023. Biofuels made from rapeseed oils are called first generation. Poland’s production of refined rapeseed oil changed from 386.5 thousand tons in 2005 to 541 thousand tons in 2023. These numbers confirm the development of edible oil and biofuel production. The gross profit increased from PLN 133 mln in 2005 to PLN 443.8 mln in 2023. The net profit of the fat industry increased from PLN 110 mln in 2005 to PLN 381.6 mln in 2023. The oil industry is characterized by high investment, which reached the level of PLN 232.9 mln in 2023. The investment rate in 2023 was PLN 1.96 %. The changes observed in the rapeseed market after Poland joined the EU affected the performance of vegetable oil and biofuel producers. The regression analysis proved the hypothesis that the monthly consumption of rapeseed oil is the main factor influencing the oil industry situation in Poland. The oil industry is important to the development of the whole economy. Particular attention should be paid to current liquidity, which is why a constant supply of money from sold oil and biodiesel is needed to cover costs.

One of the most important problems in economic development is the supply of stable amounts of renewable energy sources, including biomass. The production of biomass in Poland is not satisfactory; thus, this country has to import this product. As with other products, the trade of stable biomass includes both imports and exports and depends on the price and other characteristics of the market. This research aimed to assess the biomass trade in terms of energy and evaluate changes and trends in the import and export of biomass in Poland and its characteristics. Moreover, the export specialization index (SI index), Grubel–Lloyd index (IITk index) and foreign trade coverage index (CRK index) were evaluated. The considerations were based on the biomass trade in the context of environmental economics. This research found that the neighboring countries of Poland are the most important partners in both imports and exports. Germany and Lithuania are the most important countries in the trade of woody biomass. The export specialization index (SI index), in 2005–2008, was positive and growing, which means that exports exceeded imports; then, in 2009, there was a decline; from 2010 to 2013, the balance increased again, reaching significant positive values until 2019; and, in 2020, there was a decline. The Grubel–Lloyd index for the Polish wood and forestry industry showed a dynamic evolution in the analyzed period of 2005–2020, which reflects the industry’s adaptive strategies in the face of global changes. Raw wood and veneer sheets are more volatile, which may indicate periodic shifts in the structure of foreign trade and the flexibility of producers to respond to international trends and demands. The CRK index in the years 2005–2020 presents an astonishing picture of changes in competitiveness and the ability to maintain the balance of imports and exports. The significant increase in the ratio of firewood and raw wood may reflect an increase in interest in renewable energy sources and the expansion of the industry into new markets.

Economic development requires a constant supply of energy. The utilization of fossil fuels causes environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The effects of fossil fuel use have impacted global warming, which may affect the world. The problem of environmental degradation can be decreased by using renewable energy sources and nuclear energy. The role of nuclear energy is increasing. More than 10% of electric energy is now produced from nuclear energy worldwide. However, the share varies by country. For example, in France, it is 70%, in Slovakia, it is 55%, and in Ukraine, it is 53%. Many countries do not have nuclear energy at all. This study aims to investigate the development of gross nuclear electricity production both in the world and in the European Union (EU) in terms of stationarity and prognosis. To achieve the goal of this study, the authors utilized descriptive statistics. The time range included the period 1990–2022. This long time period enabled us to conduct the ADF (Augmented Dickey Fuller) test. According to our analysis, gross nuclear electricity production in the European Union (EU) was stationary. We also evaluated future prognosis using the ARIMA (Autoregressive Moving Average) model. We also used the Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model to evaluate changes within nuclear electricity production. Based on our research, we can conclude that the data were stationary. Finally, we concluded that gross nuclear electricity production in the European Union (EU) will increase in eight countries. In 2022, countries such as Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Spain, France, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, and Finland increased their gross nuclear electricity production compared to 1990. Based on the ARIMA model prognosis, the following countries will increase their gross nuclear electricity production in the period 2023–2032: Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Finland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Based on the VAR model, we elaborated the prognosis, according to which countries such as France, Romania, Spain, and Sweden will increase their gross nuclear electricity production in the period 2023–2032.