The main aim of this paper was to determine changes in renewable energy production in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The specific objectives were to assess the degree of concentration of renewable energy and the pace of changes in the volume of production of this energy from individual sources in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as to determine the structure according to renewable energy sources to show the directions of changes. Central and Eastern Europe countries were covered in the research, meaning that a total of 23 countries were included in the analysis. The data used in the study was obtained from the IRENA and World Bank databases. The research period covered the years from 2011 to 2019. For data analysis, the following methods were used: Index methods, Gini coefficient, Lorenz curve, and Grade Data Analysis. The development of the renewable energy sector and modernisation of the energy structure are of great importance for countries to meet their climate obligations. Large-scale energy production from renewable sources could reduce a 60% reduction in the temperature rise. Additionally, such activities will contribute to an increase in energy efficiency by 90%. The energy transition would also bring more comprehensive social and environmental benefits. Thus far, researchers have dealt with energy consumption-related problems in Central and Eastern Europe countries. This article focuses on the production of renewable energy in countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The article fills the research gap in this area. It refers to the situation in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe at a time when developing renewable energy has become very important. In our analysis, we examine renewable energy production in countries located in one region but are and are not EU members. Thanks to this, it will be possible to observe differences in terms of belonging to economic groups. In the case of the pace of changes and the structure of renewable energy produced, a difference can be found between the EU member countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the group of countries outside the EU. The fastest renewable energy production growth was achieved in EU member countries of Central and Eastern Europe. In the case of the mentioned countries, the production of solar, wind, and bioenergy was developed. In other countries, hydropower production was set and treated as a traditional energy source. Generally, in countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the development of energy based on renewable energy sources was not dependent on the pace of economic development of the country. Decision-makers in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe should develop the production of renewable energy from sources that are the easiest and cheapest to use. This is the only way to increase the production of renewable energy in developing countries.

In Poland, rapeseed production has been the fastest growing branch of plant production since 2000. Rapeseed yields have increased 2.5 times in the last 20 years. The main reason for this trend was the implementation of obligations resulting from legal acts by Member States relating to increasing the share of RES in the structure of primary energy production, and in particular relating to the share of biofuels in fuels used in transport. In Poland in the years 2010–2020, about 1.0–1.6 million tonnes of rape seeds were used for this purpose annually. Due to the fact that biofuel production competes for raw materials with the food economy, at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, many representatives of various circles intensified their voices, calling for withdrawal from the policy supporting the biofuel sector, which may have resulted in a decrease in oilseed plant cultivation areas. As a result of the research conducted here, it was determined that the place of oilseed rape in the sowing structure will be taken by rye, triticale and, on good soils, by wheat. Compared to rape, their production is characterised by lower income per 1 ha; in the years 2013–2019, these differences amounted to: wheat—8 EUR, triticale—102.3 EUR, and rye—168 EUR. This situation will deteriorate the value cereal cultivation sites and will result in a decrease in their yields. On the basis of the conducted research, the estimated value of rape as a forecrop for wheat, triticale, and rye was, respectively: 103.7; 64.6 and 46.7 EUR. An additional advantage of oilseed rape is that it is an excellent bee resource and is classified as a commodity crop, i.e., one from which significant amounts of honey can be obtained, with a net value of EUR 55 per hectare. In addition, in many agricultural holdings, as a result of forecasted changes in plant production, there will be an accumulation of field work during the harvest period, which will also affect the worse use of machinery and storage areas. The consequence of increasing the area under which cereal crops and their supply can grow may be the decline in production profitability and thus the income situation of farms, but this will be assessed at the next stage of research.

The relationship between agriculture and climate change is two-sided. Agriculture is the branch of the economy most affected by the ongoing processes. It is also a large emitter of greenhouse gases and there are more and more voices about the need to reduce emissions. The purpose of the study was, based on FADN (Farm Accountancy Data Network) data, to determine the structure of greenhouse gas emissions in farms and to identify types of farms where it is possible to reduce GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions through better energy use. The emission volume was determined on the basis of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) methodology modified for the FADN data. The emissions related to the production of energy were found to be of minor importance compared to other emission sources. Only in the horticultural crop type is the emission from the Energy section the dominant stream of GHG emission. The greatest emissions come from livestock production. Therefore, the emphasis on reducing emissions should not be placed on the Energy sector because, except for the type of horticultural farm, there is not much potential for reduction. The introduction of taxes for GHG emissions at the level of 27.31 EUR/t would reduce farm income from 21% for the type of field crops to 40% for the type of herbivorous animals. The exception is low-emission permanent crops, where the decrease in income would be only 3.85%.

Climate change and negative environmental effects are results of a simplified understanding of management processes, i.e., assuming economic effects as the basis for development, without taking into account external costs. Economically efficient facilities are not always environmentally efficient. Due to the existing conflict of economic and environmental goals, it seems necessary to look for measures that would include both economic and environmental elements in their structure. The above doubts were the main reasons for undertaking this research. One of the important sectors of the economy accepted for research, where energy is an essential factor of production, is agriculture. Agricultural production is very diversified both in terms of inputs and final products. Depending on the production direction, the processes of conversion of energy accumulated in inputs into energy accumulated in commodity products have different natures and relationships. Taking into account the importance of agriculture in the national economy and the current environmental needs of the world, the types of farms generating energy surplus and those in which the surplus is the least cost-consuming were indicated. The research used the economic and energy efficiency index, which makes it possible to jointly assess technical and economic efficiency. Assuming the need to produce food with low energy consumption and a positive energy balance, it is reasonable to develop a support system for those farms showing the highest economic and energy efficiency indicators.

The paper’s main purpose is to identify the differentiation and variation of electricity prices for households in EU countries. The specific objectives are to highlight the directions and differentiation of price changes in EU states, determine the degree of volatility (or stability) of electricity rates, and establish the correlation between electricity prices for household consumers and economic and energy parameters. All members of the European Union were chosen for this project as of 31 December 2019 (28 countries). The analyzed period covered the years 2008–2019. The source of collected information was the thematic literature review and the data from Eurostat. Descriptive, tabular and graphical methods, constant-based dynamics indicators, coefficient of variation, Kendall’s tau correlation coefficient, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient were used to analyze and present the materials. It was determined that higher electricity prices for households in the EU states were associated with better economic parameters. Developed countries must have higher energy rates because they will ensure energy transformation, i.e., implementing energy-saving technologies. In the EU, electricity prices for household consumers showed little volatility, but that variability increased in line with the surge of the volume of household energy consumption.

The paper’s main purpose was to identify the level and factors influencing the consumption of bioenergy of agricultural origin in agriculture in EU countries. All EU countries were deliberately selected for research, as of 31 December 2018. The research period covered the years 2004 to 2018. The sources of materials were the subject literature, Eurostat data, and IEA (International Energy Agency) data. The following methods were used for the analysis and presentation of materials: descriptive, tabular, graphical, Gini concentration coefficient, Lorenz concentration curve, descriptive statistics, Kendall’s tau correlation coefficient and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. In the EU, there was a high level of concentration of renewable energy consumption in several countries. There was also no change in the use of bioenergy of agricultural origin in agriculture, but the concentration level was low. The degree of concentration has not changed for both parameters of renewable energy over a dozen or so years, which proves a similar pace of development of the use of renewable energy sources in individual EU countries. Higher consumption of bioenergy of agricultural origin in agriculture was shown to occur in economically developed countries, but with high agricultural production. There was a strong correlation between the consumption of bioenergy of agricultural origin in agriculture for the entire EU and individual economic parameters in the field of energy and agriculture. The relations were positive for all economic parameters, for total renewables and biofuels consumption and for agricultural production parameters. Negative relations concerned the total energy consumption and parameters related to the area of agricultural crops.

The aim of the study is a comparative analysis of heating costs of heat pumps and biomass-fired boilers. The study was carried out in the communes of Ruda-Huta (Chełm County) and Dębowa Kłoda (Parczewski County). The subject of the study were school complexes in which the heating system was changed from heating oil to ground heat pumps and a boiler house, working on fine coal, replaced by a biomass-fired boiler-house. The Levelised Cost of Heat (LCOH) method was used to assess heating costs in both facilities. In Poland, according to data for 2018, the basic carrier of renewable energy used in heating was biomass (90.5%), where the share of heat pumps was only 0.4%. The study shows that such proportions, at least in the public utility buildings heating sector, are not economically justified. Average heating costs, estimated using the LCOH method, turned out to be over 20% higher in the case of biomass than in the case of heat pumps. The attractiveness of this technology in heating is evidenced by the development of this market in Europe. Similar trends are also taking place in the world market. Due to the fact that electricity is most often used to generate this type of heat, the development of this sector will highly depend on the relation between its prices and prices of other energy carriers.

The mitigation of climate change poses a major challenge to the legal framework which aims to stimulate the development of renewable energy sources. The European Union’s direction for the use of renewable energy is distributed generation and an increased use of by-products and organic waste, especially in the production of next-generation biofuels. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the production potential of straw in Poland and the possibility of its use for energy purposes, including a forecast for 2030, on the assumption that the management of this resource is in accordance with the provisions of the Polish Code for Good Agriculture Practice. In Poland, in the years 1999–2018, the average annual surplus of straw harvested over agricultural consumption equalled 12.5 million tons (4.2 Mtoe). Its largest surpluses were in the Dolnośląskie, Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Lubelskie, Wielkopolskie, and Zachodniopomorskie voivodeships (NUTS2). Based on the developed panel models, forecasts for straw surpluses in Poland are presented in three perspectives: realistic, pessimistic, and optimistic. The forecasts show regional differentiation until 2030. Each of the three perspectives indicate a slow increase in these surpluses, and depending on the adopted version, it will range from 10.6% to 21.9%.

Summary Subject and purpose of work: The subject of this analysis and evaluation is the use of renewable energy sources in Poland, particularly in the Lubelskie Voivodeship, as a peripheral region. The purpose of this paper is to identify the role and evaluate the scale and effects of using renewable energy sources (RES), as well as the availability and absorption of financial resources for RES promotion. Materials and methods: The data were obtained from the Office of the Ruda-Huta Commune, the Regional Operational Programme Department of the Marshal Office of the Lubelskie Voivodeship in Lublin and the Department of European Funds of the Ministry of Energy, as well as Statistics Poland (GUS) and the literature on the subject. Results: In Poland the proportion of energy from renewable sources to the total primary energy generated increased in 2012-2018 from 11.73% to 14.46%. A new phenomenon, which has been highly significant for the development of this sector, is the use of innovative, small-scale technologies of energy generation from renewable sources, which created the foundations for the growth of a citizens’ energy sector, based on the initiative of the citizens and their communities. The use of RES contributes to reduced expenditures on the purchase of energy carriers and constitutes an effective method of implementing plans for developing a low-carbon economy and reducing low-stack emissions. Conclusions: The continuing disparities between the regions point to the need for active structural intervention to maintain economic, social and territorial cohesion, particularly in areas which are considered peripheral and have a very low GDP per capita. One of the preferred directions should be to support the use of RES.

The purpose of the conducted research was to assess the economic efficiency of the application of heat pumps in heating. The research was carried out in the Ruda-Huta Commune (Chełm County, Lublin Province). The research was conducted at the School Complex, where, in 2012, the heating system was changed from a system powered by fuel oil to a system of ground heat pumps. Due to the very low level of interest rates during the analysed years, the method of simple payback time, SPBT, was used to assess the economic effectiveness of this investment. The research shows that the application of a ground-source heat pump for heating the building of the School Complex in Ruda-Huta was economically efficient in comparison with the oil fuel system. The SPBT simple payback time was 2.14 years. Obtaining such a quick return on capital expenditure was a result of both significantly lower operating costs and obtained subsidy in the amount of approximately 50% of the total financial resources spent on the implementation of this project. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the replacement of the oil heating system with heat pumps would be economically viable even without subsidies, but then the SPBT would extend to 5.48 years.

The goal of the conducted research was to assess the economic profitability of investment in a photovoltaic power plant located in south-east Poland, taking into consideration the whole invested capital, regardless of its origin. To determine such profitability, the NPV (Net Present Value) was used as well as the DPBT (Dynamic [Discounted] Pay Back Time). Empirical data was obtained from Energia Dolina Zielawy Sp. z o.o., with its registered office in Wisznice, which owns a photo-voltaic farm with 1.4 MW power, located in Bordziłówka (commune of Rossosz, province of Lublin). In accordance with the adopted assumptions described in the methodology section, the net present value of the investment in both variants was above zero, thus being economically efficient. The discounted period of payback time DBPT for the version with a subsidy was 9 years, whereas the option without subsidy extended that period to 13 years, and in the case of not taking the PMSPE into account – 18 years, still significantly shorter than the assumed 25-year period of use.

The effects of various doses of copper (0, 50, 150, 300, 450 mg kg(-1) of soil) on the activity of catalase and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in soil under the amaranth cv. Aztec were evaluated in a pot experiment. The activity of catalase increased in fresh and air dry soil for all objects during the growing period of amaranth (soil sampling deadlines - June, August and October). Higher activity of catalase was observed in fresh soil samples than in air dry ones. It has been shown that increasing doses of copper applied (50, 150, 300, 450 mg kg(-1)) contributed to a reduction in the activity of catalase in fresh and air dry soil samples in the test months in relation to the control object. The highest catalase activity was observed in objects without the application of Cu, whereas the lowest catalase activity was affected by the highest dose of Cu. An increase in total antioxidant capacity under amaranth cultivation was caused only by the first dose of copper (50 mg kg(-1)). The application of increasing doses of copper, greater than 50 mg kg(-1), resulted in progressive reduction of the mean value of total antioxidant capacity, which in any case was lower than the value for the control object. The mean value of total antioxidant capacity increased during the growing period, regardless of the applied dose of copper. The statistical analysis showed high significant negative correlations between a dose of Cu and the catalase activity in fresh and air dry soil samples in the test months as well as between a dose of Cu and the value of its total antioxidant capacity.

The aim of this study was to assessment of the impact of EU climate and energy policy changes on the biofuels sector, with particular emphasis on the impact of these changes on rape production prospects. The research was carried out on the basis of the reports of the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Energy Regulatory Office, National Support Centre for Agriculture, the Central Statistical Office of Poland, the EU Commission. Tabular and descriptive methods were used. Analyzes covered the years 2005-2017 with perspective until 2030. As a result of these changes, the rapeseed area may be limited. The research shows that lowering the NCW implementation by 1% will result in a reduction of the rapeseed area by 42.28 thousand. ha. In 2030, the area occupied for the cultivation of this plant may be smaller by 14.3% compared to 2021.

In the world renewable energy sector, including large hydropower, employed 10.3 million people, directly and indirectly, in 2017. This represents an increase of 5.3% over the number reported the previous year. The aim of the executed research is to determine the influence of harvesting renewable energy on the labour market in EU, Eurostat databases provided a source of empirical data concerning the amount of produced energy. The following sectors were considered: solid biofuels, biogas, liquid biofuels, geothermal, hydropower, municipal waste, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, wind power and heat pumps. The research concerned 28 Member States of the EU between 2009 and 2016. Panel estimation was used as means of empirical indication of relations between the variables. The obtained models are adjusted to the empirical data, the rectified coefficient of determination equalled, depending on the sector, 0.828 (liquid biofuels) to 0.981 (solid biofuels). The analysed models show that throughout the examined period, the solar and wind power sectors were the ones that consumed the larger amount of work. As it was indicated above, these sectors are considered the most innovative and technologically advanced ones and thus, the employment rates seem to decreased in the shorter time.

The aim of the work was to assess the changes and perspectives for the development of heat pump applications in the context of the EU's strategy “Clean Planet for All” and the Energy Policy of Poland until 2040. The research material and source of information were studies and reports of the "EurObserv'ER" Consortium, the Central Statistical Office of Poland, the European Commission and the Ministry of Energy. The analyses covered the years 2009-2017 with a prospect until 2030. The research shows that the number of heat pumps in operation in the European Union in 2017 amounted to 34.4 million and in comparison to 2012 increased by over 170%. In the same period in Poland, their number increased more than four times, however, the produced quantity increased by only 64%. Despite such significant increase, Poland in terms of the number of installations and the share of heat pumps in obtaining energy from renewable sources is still characterized by a relatively low level of utilization of this potential. Its development may contribute not only to the fulfillment of commitments resulting from the climate and energy policy, but also to a significant contribution to improving the purity of atmospheric air.

The aim of the executed research is to determine the influence of harvesting renewable energy on the labour market. Eurostat Databases provided a source of empirical data concerning the amount of produced energy. The number of the employed and the performance of the installed equipment were determined thanks to reports drafted by EurObserv’ER or International Renewable Energy Agency. The following sectors were considered: solid biofuels, biogas, liquid biofuels, geothermal, hydropower, municipal waste, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal and wind power. The research concerned 28 member states of the EU between 2009 and 2015. Such a scope was established due to significant changes on the renewable energy market triggered by the Climate and Energy Package passed by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. The number of the working people (directly in the enterprises operating in the field of producing raw energy materials and energy from renewable sources, as well as providing equipment and services within this field) in relation to 1 000 tonnes of oil equivalent of the primary energy obtained in particular sectors of renewable energy sources was used as the performance indicator. Panel estimation was used as means of empirical indication of relations between the variables.

Between 2011 and 2016 photovoltaic sector in Poland was characterised by continuous and dynamic growth. The country's cumulative installed PV power increased from 1 MW up to 187 MW, whereas the amount of PV-generated electricity expanded from approximately 0.01 GWh to 124 GWh. The most important factors influencing this sector's growth are liberalisation of Polish energy law and financial resources, as well as continuing decline in photovoltaic installation costs, for both commercial and noncommercial prosumers. In 2018, the average cost of installing 1kW of photovoltaic system was between 4000 PLN and 6400 PLN (with average 5000 PLN). Such price fluctuations are caused by the quality of PV modules and inverters, changes to assembly techniques, competition in local markets and selection methods.

The main objective of the article is to identify the implications of implementing climate and energy policy for rural areas.Due to their quantitative and qualitative potential, rural areas participate to a significant degree in the achievement of the indicative targets resulting from the climatic package. Thanks to the production of biomass and, increasingly often, energy itself during the 2006-2016 period, the share of RES (renewable energy sources) in the production of primary energy grew twofold from 7.8% to 13.9%. Biomass was the main source, but since 2010 the use of wind and sun in the production of energy has been growing rapidly. Based on the analysis, it can be argued that by 2050 most of the energy and renewable energy resources will be produced in agriculture and rural areas. Implementing the commitments stemming from EU climate and energy policy can be an impetus for rural development.

W opracowaniu przedstawiono wyniki badań, których celem była ocena efektów absorpcji funduszy europejskich na inwestycje z zakresu odnawialnych źródeł energii w woj. lubelskim oraz sformułowanie wstępnych rekomendacji na przyszły okres programowania. W ramach RPO WL i PROW (3.2.1) w woj. lubelskim zamontowano ponad 34 tys. instalacji o mocy 189,2 MWt i 4,1 MWe, przeważnie kolektorów słonecznych (95,8%), kotłów na biomasę (2,3%) i paneli fotowoltaicznych (1,9%). Efektem zrealizowanych projektów było zmniejszenie zużycia paliw konwencjonalnych na obszarach wiejskich o około 4% w ciągu roku, co jest równoważne wartości energetycznej 19 tys. t węgla kamiennego. Działania podjęte w ramach analizowanych programów przyczyniły się również do redukcji emisji CO2 o około 1,7 tys. t, podstawowego gazu cieplarnianego oraz pyłów i innych zanieczyszczeń.

The aim of the study was the evaluation of the absorption of funds from the Cohesion Fund within the Operational Program Infrastructure and Environment for 2007–2013, Priority IX: Environmentally-friendly power infrastructure and power effectiveness, Action 9.4 – Generation of energy from renewable sources. The source material constituted data acquired from the Department of European Funds of the Ministry of Energy (institution implementing the action). The methods of comparative analysis were used for the purpose of the evaluation. The final result of the analyzed action was the performance of 64 facilities in 71 locations for total value of PLN 5 749 million, with co-funding of PLN 1 520 million. Circa 82% of this amount was allocated to 55 investments in “wind power” and the remaining part to 12 biogas plants (9,3%) and 4 power plants powered with solid biomass (8,7%). As a result of the performance of the studied action, the power of the sources generating electric energy increased by 823 MWe, including wind power — by 704 MWe, in plants powered with solid biomass — by 102 MWe, in biogas plants — by 17 MWe. Whereas, in terms of quantity of electric energy projected to be generated within one year, the proportions were slightly different and were as follows: in wind power — 1 790, in biomass power plants 650 GWh, in biogas power plants 144 GWh. Among the studied projects, biomass power plants were characteristic of the most favorable values of investment contributions for 1 MWh of planned production of electric energy. Their average value was much lower than in the case of a biogas plant (by 178%) and wind power plants (220%).