Dairy cows' longevity integrates multiple functional traits and influences dairy production sustainability. This study assessed the impact of productive lifespan on lifetime productivity in Swiss low-input and organic dairy farms, compared the predictability of longevity and lifetime production using first- versus second-lactation data, and evaluated whether lactation curve parameters (LCP) derived from test-day records improve predictions. Herdbook data of culled cows were analyzed using mixed-effects models to predict length of productive lifespan (LPL; days from first calving to culling), number of lactations until culling (MaxLN), lifetime milk production (LTP; kg energy-corrected milk, ECM), and average daily milk yield during productive lifespan (DMY_LPL; kg ECM). Records from first and second lactation were used in three datasets: a large dataset (n = 10,031 cows, 384 farms), a dataset with insemination records (n = 6,011 cows in first and 5,662 in second lactation, 372 farms), and a dataset with LCP (n = 6,048 cows in first and 6,735 in second lactation, 384 farms). Models based on second-lactation data with insemination records performed best for LPL and LTP, whereas MaxLN was best predicted using first-lactation data with insemination records. Predictability remained low for LPL (0.7%) and MaxLN (0.8%), and moderate for LTP (10.0%). Models including LCP best predicted DMY_LPL (64.9%). Predictive performance improved with additional factors, including somatic cell count, breed, calving interval, age at first calving, lactation persistency, milk yield traits, fat-to-protein ratio, and alpine pasturing. Based on second-lactation data, lifetime milk yield traits were reasonably predictable, whereas longevity prediction remained challenging.

Based on herdbook data from over 2.44 million Swiss dairy cows with approximately 7.33 million lactations (01 January 1999 - 31 August 2020), culling risk factors were analyzed using Weibull proportional hazard models. Time-dependent fixed effects included fat-protein production level compared to herdmates, number of inseminations, calving interval, calving ease, lactation cell count, herd size, herd size changes, calving season, and production zone. Time-independent fixed effects comprised age at first calving, farm changes between first and last lactation, and the origin of replacement heifers, while herd-year-season was included as random effect. All traits significantly affected culling risk. Together, the investigated traits improved model fit substantially, with Maddala's R² values ranging between 0.20 and 0.40 for productive lifespan (PL). However, most individual trait effects were small in magnitude despite statistical significance. The number of inseminations accounted for the largest proportion of PL variation across all breeds, followed, in most breeds, by the cow's fat-protein yield relative to her herdmates. The importance of other traits varied by breed. Linear composite traits explained only a small proportion of PL variation (1.2 to 3.7 %), with a good udder score improving longevity. Cows with a high final linear score had longer PL, though its explanatory power was low (0.7 to 2.5 %), and few cows were scored at the extremes. The findings highlight the critical role of fertility management for longevity and the economic importance of productivity for cow survival, while emphasizing that longevity is influenced by many factors with generally small individual contributions.

Seventy-two calves, distributed into three genotypes (Brown Swiss [BS], Limousin x Brown Swiss [LB] and Swiss Fleckvieh [SF]), were used in an extensive fattening trial from the fourth to the sixth month of life. Each farm included six calves of each genotype. The farm in Frick AG, where calves were kept in a barn, served as the control group, while the other three sites provided grazing access (Wulflingen ZH, Fruebuel on the Zugerberg and Alp Weissenstein on the Albula Pass). Grazing time was approximately 8-9 hours per day. In the barn, all calves were fed the same hay ad libitum. The grazing calves also received 0.5 kg of alfalfa and 1.3 kg of maize pellets per animal per day, plus an additional 0.5 kg of concentrates in the last four weeks. The calves at the Frick site received 1 kg of alfalfa and 2 kg of corn pellets per animal per day, plus 1.3 kg of concentrates per day in the last 6 weeks and 4 kg of fresh grass silage per animal per day in the last month of fattening. Blood samples were taken one week before slaughter on the 180th day of life, and at slaughter. Haemoglobin, haematocrit, erythrocytes, leukocytes and other blood count parameters as well as total protein and immunoglobulins were analysed in the blood, and lactate and cortisol were analysed in the blood from the slaughter. The farm elevation positively influenced haemoglobin, haematocrit and erythrocytes. alpha- and gamma-globulins were higher in the groups with grazing access, especially at the high- elevation extensive sites. Overall, calves of the SF breed performed better than BS; LB were in the middle of the range.

Dairy cow longevity is a key trait combining multiple functional traits and is decisive for sustainability of dairy production. This study addresses the hypothesis that under low-input production conditions, dual-purpose breeds outperform dairy breeds in terms of longevity. Herdbook data of 1796 culled Swiss cows in 72 mixed dairy farms were used to compare two dual-purpose breeds (Original Braunvieh (OB) and Simmental (SI)) with three dairy breeds (Swiss Fleckvieh (SF), Brown Swiss (BS) and Holstein (HO)). Each selected mixed herd included at least one dual-purpose and one dairy breed managed under the same conditions. Breeds were compared for length of productive lifespan (LPL; days from first calving to culling), lifetime milk production (LTP; kg energy corrected milk) and average daily milk yield during LPL (DMY_LPL; kg energy corrected milk). OB cows lived significantly longer than HO (1946 ± 71 d vs. 1695 ± 55 d, p = 0.046), whereas SI cows did not (1683 ± 62 d, p = 0.999). Both dual-purpose breeds produced significantly less milk per day (OB: 17.8 ± 0.3 kg, SI: 18.0 ± 0.3 kg) than SF (19.1 ± 0.2 kg) and HO (19.7 ± 0.3 kg). However, OB cows compensated with greater longevity, resulting in the numerically highest LTP (35,584 ± 1315 kg), which did not statistically differ from the specialised dairy breeds. In conclusion, choosing a dual-purpose breed does not necessarily ensure longer productive lifespans: while OB showed a clear advantage, SI cows exhibited shorter productive lifespan, likely due to breed-specific production conditions.

The short lifespan of dairy cows not only raises ethical questions but is also the subject of economic debates. Determining the economically optimal productive lifespan (OPL) is a complex issue because a large share of cows is culled during the first 2 lactations. The objective of this study was to estimate the OPL, taking into account relevant influencing factors, such as milk loss risks, heifer costs, and breeding progress (BP). We developed a bioeconomic cow model for 2 production systems with different milk-yield levels (C_low = 6,194 kg/yr, C_high = 9,338 kg/yr) based on the net revenue approach. The model used accounting data from 189 family farms and herd-specific data from 9,858 cows with 10 completed lactations, as well as culling statistics from different breeds based on herdbook data. To estimate the impact of different risk scenarios on OPL, culled cows were assigned a milk loss of 10% to 50%. The theoretical OPL excluding milk loss risks was over 9 yr of productive lifespan, with marginal income declining significantly from the fourth year of production onwards. With an effective productive lifespan of 3.6 yr (C_low) or 2.9 yr (C_high), the milk loss rate expected by the farm was estimated to be around 25% if the cows remained in production for longer. Heifer costs had a significant influence on OPL: with heifer costs between $2,700 and $5,000 and considering 25% risk, OPL varied between 3 and 7 yr. For the baseline scenario for heifer costs ($3,423), the OPL was found to be between the fourth and fifth years of production. The effect of BP in milk yield on OPL was weak: Assuming 2% BP per generation reduced OPL by 6 mo, compared with the baseline assumption of identical replacement. To fully exploit income potential, it is more important to improve production reliability by reducing risk, which is particularly relevant for higher-yielding cows. This requires a stronger focus on fitness-related traits, such as fertility and health. The realistic economic potential of higher longevity was found between 10% and 15% higher income per cow, which would be achieved for C_high with an average productive lifespan of 4 years and for C_low at 6 years.

This research paper compares fertility traits, health indicators and health management routines of Swiss dairy farms characterized by short vs. long productive lifespans (SPL vs. LPL). We evaluated whether a longer productive lifespan will result in poorer cow health based on herdbook data from breeders associations (n = 142), farm questionnaire data (n = 67), veterinary treatment data (n = 64) and data obtained during farm visits (n = 30). Dairy farms were selected in such a way that they contrasted in terms of length of productive lifespan, but were representative of the Swiss dairy sector. Fertility performance was better on farms with LPL indicated by a lower number of inseminations per heifer, shorter average number of days open and shorter calving intervals. Consistently, the proportion of antibiotic veterinary treatments due to fertility problems was by tendency higher on SPL farms, as was the number of antibiotic treatments due to other problems (i.e. other than fertility, udder or locomotion problems). Other types of veterinary medical treatments did not differ by productive lifespan profiles. Average somatic cell score and proportions of test day records with elevated somatic cell count (SCC) were significantly higher on farms with LPL. However, this increase was smaller than what could be expected due to the age difference between contrasting productive lifespan profiles and was not associated with higher treatment incidences for clinical mastitis. Locomotion scores and lameness incidence did not differ by productive lifespan profile. Apart from a slightly higher proportion of farms with LPL practicing abrupt drying off, cow health management routines did not differ significantly between farms of contrasting productive lifespans. We conclude that a longer productive lifespan is not at the expense of health, even if the SCC level increased with age. Fertility, limb and udder health should be the main focus when aiming for a long productive lifespan.

Data from breeder hens and chicks are particularly critical for the development of vitamin B2 recommendations for organic poultry. To test safe thresholds of supplementation, 100 breeder hens (Hubbard JA 57 K) and ten cockerels were allocated to ten housing groups, with each receiving supplementation of either 4.0 (treatment CON) or 2.5 mg (treatment RED) riboflavin per kg feed. After 15 weeks of experimental feeding, 256 eggs were incubated. From the hatched chicks (Hubbard S757), 192 were allocated to four treatments based on their parents' treatment (CON- or RED-) and on their own supplementation of either 4.0 (-CON) or 2.5 mg (-RED) riboflavin per kg feed. Two groups of each combination (CON-CON, CON-RED, RED-CON, RED-RED), each with 24 chicks of both sexes, were fattened for nine weeks and slaughtered. Analysis of total riboflavin (sum of native concentrations and supplements) in the parent's feeds revealed an average, over the 15 weeks, of 7.8 and 5.8 mg per kg feed for CON and RED, respectively. Body weight, plumage integrity, gait appearance, footpad, claw and keel bone integrity, lesion scores, laying performance, and egg mass were found to be of similarly high levels for all hens without any treatment effects. Performance traits of the hens in both treatments reached the specifications of the producer for this genotype. Yolk and albumen riboflavin concentrations were not affected although yolk colour in the RED treatment group became darker. Fertility was not affected, and hatchability was 100 per cent. Total riboflavin concentrations in the broiler diets were on average, over 9 weeks, 8.2 and 6.1 mg/kg for CON and RED, respectively. In chicks, RED treatment of their parents led to significant depressions of feed intake and growth. The RED treatment of the chicks themselves also impaired growth. Growth rates of the CON-CON treatment were in line with the specifications of the producer for this genotype. Plumage scores, footpad integrity and walking appearance of the broilers, and dressing percentage of the carcasses were not affected by treatment. The RED treatment of chicks caused lower spleen and heart weights, while pancreas and liver weights, and liver riboflavin concentrations were not affected. In conclusion, supplementation of 4.0 mg/kg to organic diets did not evoke any health or performance problems for breeder hens or broiler chicks, while a supplementation level of 2.5 mg per kg feed led to reduced weight gains, although without any other riboflavin deficiency symptoms.

Adaptivity of eating and rumination behavior are assumed to play a particular role for cows in low-input systems, because they are more frequently challenged by altering forage quality. The present study examined relations between forage quality, chewing behavior and efficiency estimates in dairy cows from Swiss zero-concentrate organic farming systems. A total of 102 Swiss Fleckvieh cows on two organic dairy farms were observed during one full production year. Each farm was visited eight times. At each visit, up to 45 cows were equipped with RumiWatch® (Itin and Hoch GmbH, Liestal, Switzerland) sensor head collars, from which eating and rumination time and the frequency of activity changes were obtained for 48 h. Milk from one complete day was analyzed individually. All offered roughages (pasture herbage, grass silages and hay) were sampled at each visit and analyzed for crude fiber, crude protein and net energy, and a feed quality score was calculated. Metabolic production efficiency was estimated based on entire lactation data, and feed efficiency was estimated based on the individual farm visits. Lactation stage and forage quality significantly affected the chewing sensor variables. Eating time increased and rumination time decreased with the improved nutritive quality of feed. Coefficients of variance of the factor animal in the sensor variables showed a contribution of the individual cow to chewing behavior. Significant correlations between chewing sensor variables and efficiency estimates were not found. In conclusion, chewing behavior under on-farm conditions in low-input dairy farms alters during lactation and during changing forage quality, with significant animal effects, indicating potential for new phenotypes, albeit with no indications for efficiency.

Although it is still most common to rear dairy calves separately from adult cattle, the interest in pro-longed contact between dairy calves and lactating cows during early life is increasing. Previous research has documented positive effects of cow-calf contact (CCC) on for example early calf growth and udder health of suckled cows, but also negative effects such as increased separation distress and reduced weight gains after weaning. The aim of this study was to use information from European farms with prolonged cow-calf contact to identify innovative solutions to common challenges for CCC farms. Commercial dairy farms that kept calves with adult lactating cows for seven days or more after birth were invited to participate, and interviews were performed with 104 farmers from six countries. During interviews, information about farm management, calf rearing, farmers' perception of animal health on their farm, and farmers' drivers and barriers for implementing CCC were collected. We found that CCC was practised in a large variety of housing and management systems, and that calves could be reared together with their dam, with foster cows, or using a combination of the two. The contact period varied considerably (7-305 days) between farms and about 25% of the farms manually milk fed the calves during parts of the milk feeding period. Daily contact time varied between farms, from 30 minutes per day to permanent contact except at milking. Behaviours indicative of separation distress, most commonly vocalisation in cows and calves, were reported by 87% of the farmers. Strategies to alleviate separation distress, for example simultaneous gradual weaning and separation, were used on some farms. Building constraints were most often mentioned as a barrier for implementing CCC. Our findings suggest that CCC is practised in a variety of commonly used husbandry systems. Reported challenges were primarily related to weaning and separation, and to building constraints; these aspects should be areas of future research.@2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Animal Consortium. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Early separation of cow and calf is still common practice in dairy production systems, but interest in calf rearing with cow contact has been constantly increasing in recent years. We tested the hypothesis that calves suckling their mothers twice a day would benefit with regard to behaviour and health traits until four months of age, when compared to twice daily teat bucket fed calves, fed with comparable milk amounts. Moreover, the effect of calf contact beyond the colostrum period on immunoglobulin G (IgG) and lactoferrin content in cow's milk was investigated in weeks 3, 8, 12 and 16 post partum. We conducted on-farm trials on two organic farms from 2018 to 2020, where we randomly assigned the new born calves by sex and parity status of the mother (primi- or multiparous) to either teat bucket feeding (BF, n = 30 cow-calf couples, 2 x3-5 L/d warmed bulk milk) or mother suckling (MS, n = 28 cow-calf couples, 2 x30 min contact after milking). MS calves performed less crosssucking, but manipulations of objects did not differ between feeding treatments nor did avoidance distance towards humans. Clinical scores on vitality, body condition, indicators for diarrhoea and respiratory disorders, and number of medical treatments differed between farms, but not between feeding treatments. Lactate level (stress indicator) revealed contradictory results between farms (farm 1: BF>MS, farm 2: BF <= MS). Glucose content (indicator of energy level) and packed cell volume (low values indicating anaemia) were higher in MS compared to BF calves. No difference between feeding treatments was found with regard to the immune status indicators mean total protein and IgG content in calf serum. Consistently, average IgG content in cow's milk did not differ between cows with or without calf contact and showed a clear decrease with time. The variability of lactoferrin content in milk was higher in cows with calf contact, but its average did not differ between feeding treatments nor did it change with time. We conclude that even part-time mother contact twice daily is a means to reduce abnormal behaviour, i.e. cross-sucking, as it satisfies sucking needs of calves better than teat bucket feeding. Although health traits did mostly not differ between feeding treatments, differences between farms underline the influence of management factors on calf health. Cow-calf contact twice daily had no effect on the build-up of the active immune defence until the age of four months.

Based on existing knowledge and current research projects, a number of innovative strategies and approaches are proposed that would enable organic animal farming to contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food systems that also impacts positively on our surrounding socio-ecological landscape. The focus is on 1) integrated, multispecies, diversified systems, 2) sustainable foraging strategies and efficient utilisation of natural resources, 3) home grown protein feed especially for monogastric animals, 4) resilience as the core of health development rather than just freedom of diseases, 5) breeding including multipurpose breeds, and 6) enhanced mother-infant contact.

Based on existing knowledge and current research projects, a number of innovative strategies and approaches are proposed that would enable organic animal farming to contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food systems that also impacts positively on our surrounding socio-ecological landscape. The focus is on 1) integrated, multispecies, diversified systems, 2) sustainable foraging strategies and efficient utilisation of natural resources, 3) home grown protein feed especially for monogastric animals, 4) resilience as the core of health development rather than just freedom of diseases, 5) breeding including multipurpose breeds, and 6) enhanced mother-infant contact. Introduction: It is clear that there is a serious need for significant and fundamental improvements to the way we currently produce and consume food if we are going to meaningfully respond to the enormous global environmental challenges that face us. In some respects, organic farming offers an approach to a more sustainable food production into the future. We need less reliance on external and non-renewable resources, and more balance between yields, soil fertility, resilience and biodiversity. The role of animal farming in particular is faced with the challenge of balancing the potential positive contribution to our food system within an effective circular economy whilst also ensuring that the animals on our farms exist as living, sentient beings and thus are treated in ways which allow their lives, from their perspective, to be worth living. Over recent decades the perception of industrialised animal production has been that it is the most ‘climate friendly’ and efficient. However, in practise natural and pasture-based systems may present a more sustainable future. Natural grasslands and agro-forestry systems may provide multiple benefits, and not least in their carbon storage capacity, and mixed farming gives greater opportunity for more efficient resource utilisation. Such systems are more effective in allowing animals to meet their natural needs. However, this approach to farming also requires acceptance of diversity e.g. with regard to the species and type of animal kept and variations in outputs. Consequently, a greater requirement and opportunity for innovative approaches to the way animals are farmed organically is required, and particularly so if we are going to adhere to the IFOAM principles. In this paper, we highlight key areas of development that potentially contribute to the effectiveness and sustainability of organic animal farming systems into the future. Material and methods: This paper draws on evidence from a recently published book [1] on organic animal farming which describes the state of the art of research and experiences on well-established organic farming systems, identifies new and innovative approaches to organic animal farming and poses conceptual questions concerning the future direction of sustainable farming. The evidence is supported by research in current projects funded via the H2020 ERA-net project, CORE Organic Cofund (2;3;4;5;6] and Plus [7], and is presented as a suite of key strategies for the future development of organic animal farming. Results: Integrated, diversified multi-species systems Multi-species animal agriculture potentially reduces negative environmental impact through increased resource use efficiency and synergies. Depending on design, such systems integrate effectively within cropping systems by utilising animals’ well-developed abilities to consume plants that are either indigestible or unacceptable to humans. These systems are enhanced further when crop rotations that include soil fertility building legumes are fed to animals and their manures are effectively applied thereby creating efficient nutrient recycling loops. Farms with many crops and many species of animal observe significant interaction and high levels of productivity per unit area in their ecologically intensified and very diversified farms. Such systems are also likely to be more complex to manage, and can be organised at a wider scale as integration and collaboration between farms. Sustainable foraging, agroforestry and pastoralism Holistic grazing increasingly being implemented in European cattle farms, where they offer interesting and yet relatively unexplored possibilities for carbon storage and use of marginal land and pasture areas. A wide range of innovative approaches to grazing, foraging and agroforestry systems – e.g. monogastric animals integrated in fruit production represents future development pathways. Furthermore, the role of domesticated animals on the world’s vast areas of natural rangelands could contribute positively, which leads to a debate about pastoral systems as a possible approach to organic farming, and as climate mitigating strategies. Home grown protein feeds One of the future important strategies to reduce reliance on imported feed is the integration of leguminous and protein rich crops within organic animal farms, especially for monogastric animals, in addition to e.g. food waste or recycle product. There is increasing research evidence that shows interesting and promising options to achieve this and one of the main challenges is to ensure integration occurs at the whole farm level and within regional agricultural landscapes. Resilience as the core of health development The health of animals on organic farms must be seen as much more than the absence of disease, and that health should also encompass the ability to adapt and to self-manage, in relation to physical, mental and social wellbeing. Thinking of health in terms of ‘resilience’ helps us to develop strategies allowing us to significantly reduce antibiotics in animal farming, and to concentrate on health promoting feed, house, breeding and handling of animals, as shown through the last 15-20 years of research on antibiotic reducing strategies in organic farming. Appropriate breeding and breeds, including multipurpose breeds Whereas a loss of breed diversity is an increasingly common lament of current farming, genetic diversity is a clear agro-ecological aspiration. Over the past half century, the common breeds and breeding goals have been organised towards industrial farming conditions, where animals are continuously housed or protected by suites of prophylactic medicines. This often leaves organic farmers with difficult decisions and limited tools regarding the best choice of animal for particular situations. Furthermore, there is need for more robust breeds and increasing awareness that dualor multi-purpose breeds, e.g. egg-and-meat-poultry breeds and milk-and-meat-cattle, are more efficient than specialised breeds. Improved and increased mother-infant contact The principles of organic farming promotes allowing animals to meet natural needs, and the natural motivation to take care of newly born or hatched offspring is very strong in mother animals of most species. There is increasing interest among researchers, farmers and other stakeholders in the dairy sector for alternative systems that allow cows and calves to stay in contact for extended periods. Much of this interest results from increasing public concern and scrutiny. There are also examples of the development of pig systems that allow longer contact between piglets and sows (up to ten weeks outdoor). However, within the commercial poultry sector, such innovation is not evident and many breeds have lost the ability to become broody. This presents a strong challenge for the future development of organic poultry farming.

Health and behaviour of dairy calves reared with milk from bucket versus mother during four months

This ProYoungStock Practice Abstract gives practical recommendations for gradual separation and weaning of calves, which will help to keep the stress for animals and humans as low as possible, to prevent weight losses of calves and milk ejection problems in cows.

A randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled field trial was conducted to investigate effects of Echinacea purpurea L. extract (EP, 0.5 g (EPL) and 5 g (EPH) daily) given per os for four weeks (second to fifth week of life (WOL)) to calves during the challenging period (a) of Bluetongue-virus (BTV) vaccination and (b) transport to and acclimatization on a second farm after four WOL [1]. The 27 calves from one Swiss dairy farm were observed for eight weeks. Clinical parameters were recorded daily. Blood samples were analyzed for IgG, white and red blood cell counts and mRNA abundance of various inflammatory markers in leukocytes. Compared to placebo, both dosages of EP slightly increased body temperature after rehousing and led to an elevated mRNA abundance of prostaglandin E synthase 24h after vaccination. EPL reduced diarrhea days by 44% (EPL: 7.5 days, placebo: 13.6 days; p=0.03), but ECH decreased levels of hemoglobin and hematocrit. This is the first study about EP in calves and further investigations need to be performed.

Early separation of cow and calf is still common practice on dairy farms. In recent years, interest in mother-bonded calf rearing practices has increased. They are considered to be animal-friendly, labour-saving and health-promoting for the calf. However, these systems are challenging, e.g. regarding the cow's willingness to let down milk or the pain of separation after establishing a social bonding. We tested the hypothesis that calves allowed dam suckling (DS) twice a day would benefit concerning weight gain, health-related traits and show fewer behavioural disorders (oral manipulations) compared to bucket fed (BF) group mates. Furthermore, we investigated the impact of cow-calf contact compared to bucket feeding on selected immune parameters in calf blood and cow milk.

The objective of this randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded field trial was to investigate the effects of oral administration of purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea L. (EP)) on performance, health and immune parameters in calves. Calves (n = 27) were enrolled to three groups (9 calves per group): 0.5 g EP/calf per day (ECL), 5 g EP/calf per day (ECH) or placebo. Calves were vaccinated with Bluetongue-Virus (BTV) serotype 4 vaccine to investigate EPs effects on seroconversion. Clinical and performance parameters, inter alia body weight, health and milk intake were recorded for 57 days. Blood samples were analyzed for BTV antibodies and IgG by ELISA, white and red blood cell counts by flow cytometry and mRNA abundance of various inflammatory markers in leukocytes (IL-1 beta, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), cyclooxygenase 2 (Cox-2) and prostaglandin E synthase) was studied. The findings demonstrated no differences between groups regarding performance parameters. In all groups, calves suffered from diarrhea for a minimum of 2 days, but EP reduced the number of diarrhea days by 44% in ECL and increased the body temperature. Interestingly, ECL resulted in an increased number of respiratory disease days during the follow-up period. EP did not change blood cell and IgG counts, whereas eosinophil granulocytes were reduced in ECL. Decreased levels of hemoglobin and hematocrit were found in ECH. Prostaglandin E synthase levels in leukocytes were higher in ECL and ECH, whereas no differences were obtained for IL-1 beta, IL-8, TNF alpha and Cox-2. Due to the unexpected occurrence of BTV seropositive calves before the first vaccination, 13 calves were excluded from the evaluation on seroconversion and no statistical analyses could be performed regarding antibody production. BTV-4 antibodies were not produced in 4 placebo-calves, whereas 4 of 5 and 1 of 6 ECL- and ECH-calves produced antibodies. Further investigations are needed to draw final conclusions on mode of action and efficacy of EP in calves.

There is a serious need for significant and fundamental improvements to the way we currently produce and consume food if we are going to respond meaningfully to the enormous global environmental challenges that face us. The role of animal farming in particular is faced with the challenge of balancing their potential positive contribution to our food system within an effective circular economy while ensuring that the animals on our farms exist as living, sentient beings that are treated in ways that allow their lives, from their perspective, to be worth living.