This study introduces a cost-effective green hydrogen generation system based on the direct coupling of a discarded photovoltaic module with a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer for domestic natural gas blending (up to 20% v/v). Electrical parameters were identified using an A+A+A+ solar simulator for precise modeling. To mitigate identified impedance mismatches, a physical structural reconfiguration involving the parallel connection of internal substrings was proposed, facilitating stable operation without additional power electronics. This strategy achieved an annual energy extraction yield of 88% relative to an ideal maximum power point tracking-based system. A 30-year sensitivity analysis further demonstrated that this voltage-matching condition remains resilient to long-term parameter drift. Experimental validation under real outdoor conditions confirmed a daily production of 0.345m3, significantly surpassing the 0.12m3 domestic target. The system achieved a daily average Solar-to-Hydrogen efficiency of 7.0%, capturing over 70% of the theoretical maximum. Economic assessment indicated a Levelized Cost of Hydrogen of $5.79/kg, a 18% reduction compared to a benchmark system ($7.05/kg). The results demonstrate that the methodology is fundamentally generalizable to other standard architectures, such as 60 and 96-cell modules. These findings underscore the techno-economic potential of repurposing discarded photovoltaic modules for decentralized hydrogen production, offering a sustainable alternative aligned with circular economy principles.

In this paper, by using a nonlinear control strategy, we prove that the elimination of the fuel cell power converter in an electric vehicle powertrain is feasible. This strategy indirectly regulates the power delivered by the fuel cell through a nonlinear control implemented by a single DC-DC converter connected to a supercapacitor. This configuration allows for efficient adjustment of the operating point, in combination with an energy management strategy, to adapt to power demands. As a result, there is a reduction in the size of the powertrain and an increase in efficiency by eliminating the need for multiple DC-DC converters to directly control the fuel cell. Experimental test has been carried out, on a real electric vehicle powertrain, to validate the development.

In this article, a modular multilevel converter (MMC) submodule (SM) capacitor voltage estimator, which determine the state of the capacitors measuring the bus voltage, output voltage, and current, is proven via simulation and experimentation. The estimator deals with the complete elimination of sensors for internal converter states in an MMC. This is achieved through a state observer based on an extended Kalman filter. Additionally, a dead-time compensator is included, which is not dimensioned within the state observer using converter equations. The steady-state behavior of the observer during startup with zero initial conditions and the dynamic behavior during a reference change are evaluated via experimentation, both cases are studied in open-loop configuration. To prove performance for various operating points, results are obtained for different modulation indexes.

Mining operations are the most important industrial activity in the northern regions of Chile with a high use of fossil fuels. This paper develops a techno-economic assessment of a green hydrogen complex designed to supply fuel to stationary diesel electric generators (small-scale project) and fuels cells trucks (medium-scale project) for a company dedicated to exploiting stone materials for the mining sector. The hydrogen complex consists of a photovoltaic plant, electrolyzers, hydrogen compressors and storage, considering geographical location, solar resource and company layout. The economic assessment considers the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) and Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH), including investment and sensitivity analysis. For the small-scale project, a 60-kW photovoltaic plant installed in an area of 1000 m2, with an investment of US$ 69,000, results in an average LCOH of 4.88 US$. However, the NPV is-$47,645 and the IRR is-22%, indicating that this project is not viable. For the medium-scale project, a 1700-kW photovoltaic plant installed in an area of 28,000 m2, with an investment of US$ 2,100,000, results in an average LCOH of 4.62 US$. The results indicate feasibility, economic convenience, and scalability, marking this project as a precursor for future initiatives in the Chilean mining sector.

This study presents a method to detect cracks in solar photovoltaic modules by analyzing their dynamic electrical response without interrupting operation. The approach evaluates indicators like settling time and damping coefficient using dynamic current and voltage measurements. Baseline assessments rely on electroluminescence imaging and I-V curve analysis. A DC/DC converter generates transient responses, and outdoor tests under stable irradiance confirm the method's reliability, achieving a correlation coefficient above 0.89. Results show that cracks affect the damping coefficient in both current and voltage. Cracked modules exhibit a damping coefficient notably different from healthy ones. A linear dynamic electrical model supports this, showing healthy modules have a more oscillatory response. This method enables real-time, non-intrusive fault detection in PV modules, offering a practical solution for continuous health monitoring in solar energy systems. Its effectiveness across varying temperatures and irradiance suggests broad applicability in real-world conditions. Future research should address nonlinear aspects of the transient response, extend testing to diverse conditions, and integrate this method with current diagnostic techniques to improve accuracy. Additionally, incorporating advanced signal processing and machine learning could further enhance its ability to identify faults.

In this work, an observer for a Multilevel Modular Converter is designed. To that end, a model of the converter which considers the dead times in between the switching periods is proposed-as known, adding dead times is a standard practice that avoids the converter from short-circuits due to its switches (turn-on and turn-off) delays. From realistic simulations, this model is demonstrated to capture accurately the averaged system dynamics. Based on it, an observer is afterward designed pursuing the Geralized Parameter Estimation Based Observer (GPEBO) technique. This observer estimates the capacitor voltages of the converter from the output current. The accuracy of the proposed model and the observer are numerically validated. Copyright (c) 2025 The Authors. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

In this study, a novel optoelectronic system for fault detection in photovoltaic (PV) cells has been developed. Three sensors, each with a photodiode, were manufactured and mathematical models developed to interpret the fault results from the sensors. The photodiodes sweep across the PV panel to identify areas of high light intensity. The goal is to produce diagnostic images of PV panels that are comparable to standard electroluminescence (EL) imaging. Each sensor was tested under two conditions: darkness and sunlight exposure. For all the sensors, the results obtained in darkness closely match the EL images. However, PV panel exposure to sunlight produces mixed results due to differences in light intensity across the PV cells. To address this issue, two enhancement techniques were developed. First, a collector was used to improve sunlight directionality, with an improved result shown in Sensor 3. Second, a voltage step was added to the PV panel, showing an improved result in all three sensors. Among the tested combinations, the combination of Sensor 3 with an alternative collector and a step-type voltage source produced the best performance. These results clearly indicate that the sensor-based approach can effectively diagnose the PV panel health condition.

In this article, we propose a nonlinear voltage control to ensure power exchange in a multiport interconnected system, which consists of a bidirectional DC-DC converter and generating-storing devices. The converter topology under consideration is two-stage, composed of an interconnection of a buck with a boost converter. The motivation for this work is the explosive increase in the use of DC-DC converters due to the massification of renewable energies, electric vehicles powertrains, and energy storage systems, where fuel cells or batteries can be used as power backup or high-power support during transient phenomena. The converter's voltage step-up and step-down capabilities allow the use of supercapacitors with voltage limits that exceed those required by the load, thus enabling its use in a broader range of applications. The control design for this system does not correspond to that in standard applications involving power converters. As it is known, the latter consists of finding a control law such that the closed-loop system has an asymptotically stable equilibrium point fulfilling the voltage regulation objectives. Instead, in this application, the state does not tend to an equilibrium value in order for the system to be regulated. The converter voltage is regulated at desired some setpoint whereas the other variables are only required to be bounded. To achieve a dynamic response that best adapts to changes in system demand and ensure stability over the defined wide operating range we propose a novel control strategy that exploits the partially cascaded structure of the system. Numerical and experimental results validate our approach.

This paper presents a novel connection and control strategy for a hydrogen generation system using a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer powered by solar energy in an off-grid area without network backup. Given that, the proposed architecture is based on the indirect control of the Photovoltaic plant (achieved by removing a power-converter), the presented solution is more efficient and more reliable than the traditional scheme. Furthermore, with this innovation one can reach the same hydrogen production with smaller electrolyzers. The methodology includes detailed models of the photovoltaic panel and the electrolyzer, along with a control strategy that considers the degradation mechanisms of the electrolyzer to ensure reliable and prolonged operation. The results show that the proposed strategy keeps the operating power of the electrolyzer constant, even under variations in irradiance, thanks to energy storage in batteries. It is demonstrated that the proposed system offers efficiency above 99.6% during the analyzed period, with a 100% utilization rate of the electrolyzer, avoiding periods of inactivity and high current peaks. The study also includes simulations and experimental tests that confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of the presented solution, highlighting its advantages in terms of efficiency and investment costs compared to direct connections and other existing methods.

This paper presents a double interleaved doubler isolated single-ended primary-inductor converter (DVDiSEPIC) designed for high voltage gain in fuel cell systems. Featuring an Input-Parallel Output-Series (IPOS) architecture, the converter achieves significant voltage gain, reduced MOSFET voltage stress, and enhanced efficiency with soft switching. Using a high-frequency transformer and Voltage Doubler (VD) cell, the DVDiSEPIC achieves a voltage gain of 21 under ideal conditions. A cascaded closed-loop control strategy with ProportionalIntegral (PI) controllers ensures robust voltage regulation. Comparative analysis highlights the converter’s advantages in simplicity and performance.

This paper introduces an extension of the existing two-port “Dynamic Energy Router” (DER) applied to a three-port system in the context of an electric vehicle integrating a hydrogen fuel cell and a supercapacitor. The control strategy implemented is feedback linearization to manage the nonlinear dynamics of the system and the efficient energy distribution between the multiports. By incorporating voltage control mechanisms in one port, this method addresses the challenges of the DER energy decay and enhances the overall performance of this device. Simulations are performed in MATLAB/Simulink for testing the DER under different load variations, allowing the system to distribute the energy while considering each device’s restrictions and the defined energy management policy. This work contributes to extending the two-port DER to a three-port DER applied in a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle using a Feedback Linearization control technique, providing a versatile solution for a multi-port system where each port is capable of generating, storing and consuming energy.

This paper addresses the challenge of efficiently integrating fuel cells into multi-port energy systems, presenting an innovative underactuated nonlinear control strategy that eliminates the need for a DC-DC converter, thereby, enhancing system efficiency. By directly connecting the fuel cell to the DC bus and employing a supercapacitor as an auxiliary power source, the proposed nonlinear control technique effectively regulates the operation of both energy sources. The system’s architecture is designed to adjust the operating points of the fuel cell and supercapacitor through indirect voltage regulation, which is achieved by manipulating the DC-DC converter linked to the supercapacitor. This allows the system to adapt dynamically to varying load demands without the energy losses typically associated with conventional converters. Simulation and experimental results confirm the viability of the proposed method in a case study on an energy storage system with fuel cells, demonstrating its potential to improve the responsiveness and efficiency of fuel cell-based systems, particularly in applications requiring rapid power adjustments such as electric vehicles and renewable energy integrations. The findings contribute to the ongoing efforts to optimize hybrid energy systems, highlighting significant advancements in control strategies and system design.

Introduction: Integrating renewables in the distribution sector is a rapidly growing reality in many countries, amongst which Chile’s stands out with an increasingly diversifiable electricity matrix. However, incorporating RES into the electricity distribution sector is altogether a steep climb at present, and seen by some as a formidable challenge for utilities. Likewise, the introduction of the Smart Grid agenda in Chile is imposing new challenges to electric utilities, mainly from a regulatory and technical viewpoint. In spite of this, big players like ENEL are moving forward decisively to meet this challenge, together with academia experts. Methods: We model a sustainable energy system in the form of a smart microgrid operated by ENEL Chile comprising a hypothetical community we term a Sustainable Block™ representing an average residential building in Santiago. We then run simulations under different operating scenarios. The model takes into account the most recent innovation in the legal regulatory framework that governs the energy market in Chile ―Law 20,571―which allows for benefits to those that generate and consume part or all of their energy needs while connected to the grid. Thus, the community considers the option of consuming green energy from the microgrid with an energy storage unit to supply electricity to the 60-apartment complex of various sizes. Under this scenario, a set of energy homeostasis strategies that comprise the homeostatic control and energy management systems help balance the electricity supply versus demand. Results: The model proposed comprises a set of energy homeostasis management strategies that have been designed in the power control and energy management system to balance supply and demand while optimizing the availability and use of green energy. Thus, the energy homeostasis model optimizes the microgrid supply while injecting excess power to the grid. In this context, the community residents exhibit different consumption profiles, therefore they may willingly participate of the sustainable energy strategy as prosumers, displaying a thriftier consumption, and enjoying a lower electric bill while using more renewable energy. The model’s energy homeostasis control and energy management system, especially designed for electric power systems, seeks to maintain a dynamic balance between supply and demand and is being currently discussed with ENEL Chile as part of the intelligent control options for the introduction of distributed generation systems tied to the grid, in order to complement their electric power distribution services. Discussion: The model being proposed comprises a community of residents that we term a sustainable block™ representing an average residential building in Santiago, Chile, which aims to take advantage of Law 20,571 in Chile that allows independent electric power generators to benefit by selling electricity to the grid and also allows independent consumers (mostly residential) to generate part or all of their energy needs while connected to the grid. The community may consume electricity from the microgrid with energy storage, operated by the local electric company, supplying electricity to the 60-apartment complex of various sizes. In his regard, just like in the human body where the brain, particularly the hypothalamus, is primarily responsible for the regulation of energy homeostasis, by monitoring changes in the body’s energy state through various mechanisms, the role of energy storage as well as the role of prosumers are the key enabling factors of energy homeostasis and their interaction are highlighted in the overall analysis.

This paper presents a case study on power control and energy management for a 60 apartments' residential building with solar generation and energy storage tied to the grid in Santiago, Chile. A new energy management algorithm based on energy homeostasis is designed for a small electro thermal generation system (nanogrid), with smart metering. The test bed employs supervisory control with energy management that regulates the temperature inside a large room by the action of an HVAC (Heating/Ventilating/Air Conditioning) unit. The main objective of supervisory control is to allow temperature comfort for residents while evaluating the decrease in energy cost. The study considers a room with rooftop grid-tie nanogrid with a photovoltaic and wind turbine generation plant, working in parallel. It also has an external weather station that allows predictive analysis and control of the temperature inside the abode. The electrical system can be disconnected from the local network, working independently (islanding) and with voltage regulation executed by the photovoltaic generation system. Additionally, the system has a battery bank that allows the energy management by means of the supervisory control system. Under this scenario, a set of coordination and supervisory control strategies, adapted for the needs defined in the energy management program and considering the infrastructure conditions of the network and the abode, are applied with the aim of efficiently managing the supply and consumption of energy, considering Electricity Distribution Net Billing Laws 20.571 and 21.118 in Chile (https://www.bcn.cl/historiadelaley/historia-de-la-ley/vista-expandida/7596/), the electricity tariffs established by the distribution company and the option of incorporating an energy storage system and temperature control inside the room. The results show the advantage of the proposed tariffs and the overall energy homeostasis management strategy for the integration of distributed power generation and distribution within the smart grid transformation agenda in Chile.

This study proposes a business model to obtain a successful off-road machinery retrofit using fuel cell technology by the means of evaluating scenarios using the net present value NPV of the project as a figure of merit. Given the uncertainty of some parameters, such as the price of diesel, cost of hydrogen, and cost of technology. It is proposed to carry out a Monte Carlo simulation to sensitize the business model. The results of the simulation declare that the possibility of achieving a positive NPV is increased from 54% considering present conditions to 99% considering projections for the year 2030. The prices of diesel and hydrogen condition the results in a more relevant manner and a price relationship is obtained between these two variables. Taxes could play a key role in the future, according to the results obtained in this study.

Safety related issues, regarding the use of hydrogen technologies have raised great concern in the industry, especially in mining, due to confined places where hydrogen leaks can accumulate and eventually cause a fire hazard or explosion. Currently, there are no sufficiently robust regulations or experiences regarding the use of hydrogen in mining, which must be resolved to design safety models, pertinent regulations and a strategy to guide the use of hydrogen. This article qualitatively and quantitatively analyzes the risks of a HFCV pilot project, identifying these risks to determine how they are involved in mining operations and evaluates how dangerous these are in this environment. This is achieved through a HAZOP study and using the F&EI, where the results contribute to the knowledge of hydrogen technologies. One of the strongest results obtainedbyusing the F&EI, shows that a vehicle fueled by hydrogen (5 kg at 700 bar) in full operation presents an index of 153.0, a vehicle of similar characteristics fueled with natural gas (20 kg at 200 bar) will present a value of 197.1. Therefore, if the use of natural gas is authorized in underground mining, hydrogen that can be an even safer alternative, should be authorized too. Moreover, the results show that there is a similar probability with diesel (60 kg at 1 bar) of causing a potential incident, in addition, the HAZOP indicates that as long as hydrogen leaks are kept under control with adequate ventilation and appropriate vehicle design, the system becomes even more robust, which would be achieved by including additional infrastructure security measures to mitigate events of fire and explosion. (c) 2022 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Today's power generation and distribution industry is being faced with a number of issues, from violent weather phenomena to earthquakes, fires and landslides; including acts of arson, terrorism and vandalism, all of which pose serious concerns for the sustainability of the distribution and supply of electricity. Electric utilities like ENEL are cognizant of this fact and know they must take action. Moreover, they are required by law to be prepared and act proactively to prevent service disruption, by responding to such challenges rapidly and effectively so as to preserve stability and continuity of operation. Homeostaticity of energy systems seeks just that: to bring about a rapid, effective and efficient state of equilibrium between energy supply and expenditure at all times, whatever the circumstances, to preserve stability of systems operation. The paper presents a prescriptive energy homeostaticity model being considered by ENEL as a means to further the incorporation of renewables in the electricity generation and distribution industry. The aim is to enhance control and energy management systems in distributed generation installations tied to the grid for urban and rural communities, in order to complement and diversify their electric power distribution services. The theoretical groundwork underlying the subject as well as other relevant contextual factors are also discussed and simulation results are presented under different tariff scenarios, and energy storage alternatives, in order to compare the proposed model with the actual case. Energy storage (ES) is found to be of paramount importance in the overall analysis of the results as it enhances and reinforces thriftiness on energy consumption.

Abstract Solar simulators have been widely used to characterize the performance of solar photovoltaics cells, which typically have a size of 156 × 156 mm2. In order to amplify the testing area, a flexible optimal design method for solar simulators is presented in this study. In this work, 20 quartz tungsten halogen lamps are used with a light filter composed of a mixture of distilled water and cyan ink. The methodology includes the measurements of the irradiance nonuniformities, spectral profile, and explores the effects of light filters on the primary light source used. During this stage, the power source of the lights should be selected, where direct current is usually assumed. As soon as the primary light source is characterized by its corresponding model, a layout is defined by optimizing the nonuniformity of the irradiance. The constructed solar simulator presents a spectral match of 1.69%, a spatial nonuniformity of irradiance of 1.66%, and a temporal instability of irradiance lower than 0.1%. In addition, the current‐voltage curves are compared under indoor and outdoor test showing a root‐mean‐squared error lower than 3%. A class CAA solar simulator is achieved according to the International Electrotechnical Commission and American Society for Testing and Materials standards over an area of 270 × 270 mm2, suitable for testing small size solar photovoltaic modules.

Homeostatic control (HC) of electric power systems (EPS), particularly those that fall into the distributed generation (DG) category, can enable utilities to broaden their power supply services in line with industry changes worldwide while at the same time safeguarding their customers' power supply against environmental challenges. Such solutions are being considered nowadays by industry giants like ENEL, by far the largest electric power utility operating in Chile. ENEL is seeking to tap into the DG market with a microgrid solution that can be installed in every building that is part of its customer base. In order to accomplish this, such DG solutions should first and foremost behave like sustainable energy systems (SES). For this they ought to emulate homeostasis mechanisms present in all living organisms. Both reactive homeostasis (RH) and predictive homeostasis (PH) enable living organisms to respond early and proactively to internal changes in the grid-tied DG system as well as to environmental challenges and threats. Particularly PH does so by foreseeing when these are most likely to occur, adjusting their energy intake and expenditure accordingly to maintain a stable, efficient and sustainable equilibrium. Based on the above, this work presents a theoretical approach with an empirical base for engineering sustainability in hybrid energy systems. The project is part of a joint research initiative between a small group of university researchers and ENEL Distribucion, formerly Chilectraa of Chile to develop a commercial prototype to be implemented in apartment buildings being serviced by ENEL throughout Santiago. This is important in order to advance DG solutions implemented by utilities like ENEL Distribucion, to further EPS decentralization, offer a broad, more flexible and personalized spectrum of services and at the same time, preparing them for growing environmental challenges and threats.

This paper solves the buck–boost converter operation problem in the discontinuous conduction mode and the feeding a DC bus of a combined battery/solar-powered electric vehicle grid. Since the sun’s radiation has a very important effect on the performance of photovoltaic solar modules due to its continuous variation, the main task of the system under study is the regulation of the output voltage from an MPPT system located at the output of the panels in order to obtain a DC bus voltage that is fixed to 24 V. This is ensured via a double-loop scheme, where the current inner loop relies on sliding-mode control; meanwhile, the outer voltage loop considers a proportional–integral action. Additionally, the current loop implements an adaptive hysteresis logic in order to operate at a fixed frequency. The closed-loop system’s performance is checked via numerical results with respect to step changes in the load, input voltage, and output voltage reference variations.