Extensive valley lands in the Eastern Himalayas remain uncultivated after the rainy-season rice crop due to water seepage from surrounding hills, leading to reduced productivity and deterioration of soil health. Adopting organic farming with modified land configuration can enhance crop intensity, farm income, and several ecosystem services. Thus, the long-term field experiment was conducted, including 03 vegetable-based CS on raised beds and 08 rice-based sequences on sunken beds. The carrot-okra sequence achieved the highest mean rice equivalent yield (REY) and net return (NR), followed by potato-okra and French bean-okra, respectively. In sunken beds, the rice (cv. Shahsarang 1)-pea sequences had the highest pooled mean REY and NR. Long-term organic farming significantly (p < 0.05) improved soil chemical, physical, and biological properties under both raised and sunken beds, indicating better soil health for sustainable crop production. Further, the energy use efficiency and energy productivity were recorded as greater in the carrot-okra sequence and rice (Shahsarang-1)-pea under raised and sunken beds, respectively. More interestingly, the French bean-okra had the highest water productivity, followed by the potato-okra sequence. Thus, in a nutshell, the vegetable-based systems on raised beds and rice-legume systems on sunken beds emerged as more efficient and sustainable options for improving productivity, profitability, and ecosystem services in the fragile hill ecologies.

Diversifying, the maize-fallow system with vegetables and organic nutrient management is crucial for sustainable production in the North-Eastern Himalayas (NEH). Thus, the experiment was conducted in a split-plot design (SPD) comprising maize + soybean–tomato (M+S-T), maize + soybean-potato (M+S-P), & maize + soybean–French bean (M+S-FB) system in the main plot, and nutrient sources i.e. control, 100% FYM, 100% vermicompost (VC), and integrated nutrient management (INM) (50% FYM + VC) in the subplot. The results revealed that the M+S-T and 100% FYM significantly (p<0.05) improved maize yield by 9.0-12.4% and 31.6%, respectively. In contrast, the INM had greater soybean, tomato, and French bean yields than the others. Further, the M+S-T, and INM had the significantly (p<0.05) highest system productivity and sustainable yield index, and the M+S-P with INM had 17.0-50.8% greater net returns. Similarly, the total carbon stock was statistically (p<0.05) greater under INM but M+S-FB, and INM had 40.5% and 47.1% higher carbon pools, respectively. The aggregate-associated carbon was significantly (p<0.05) highest in M+S-T in 1.0, 0.5, & 0.1-mm except for M+S-FB in 0.25 mm. The M+S-FB with different nutrient sources significantly (p<0.05) improved mean weight diameter and geometric mean weight. Further, the M+S-P & FYM and M+S-FB & VC significantly (p<0.05) enhanced energy use efficiency and reduced carbon footprint, respectively. Hence, the diversification of the maize-fallow with vegetables and organic nutrients is recommended for improving food security, farm profitability, soil, and environmental health.

Topographic heterogeneity is a defining feature of the Eastern Region of India (ERI), where sharp gradients in altitude and slope exert strong control over soil formation processes, hydrological dynamics, vegetation distribution, and agricultural performance. There is an urgent need to synthesize multidisciplinary evidence to evaluate agronomic risks associated with altitudinal–slope variations across ERI's major landscape units—floodplains, piedmonts, undulating uplands, and hilly terrains. Steeper slopes and higher elevations consistently elevates risks due to enhanced runoff generation, severe soil erosion, rapid nutrient loss, reduced soil organic carbon (SOC), and diminished soil moisture retention, collectively heightening susceptibility to crop failure. In contrast, mid-altitude zones with higher vegetation cover tend to exhibit moderated erosion and improved soil stability, while lower elevations face complex risks driven by intensive cultivation, sedimentation, land-use transitions, and expanding urbanization. Comparable evidence from Himalayan and other terraincomplex regions reinforces these topography-driven degradation patterns, particularly regarding erosion rates, nutrient redistribution, and SOC variability. The terrain attributes fundamentally regulate soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, influencing micronutrient availability, infiltration capacity, SOC stocks, and vegetation structure—key determinants of agronomic suitability. With projected increases in rainfall intensity and monsoonal variability under climate change, these topographylinked risks are expected to intensify. Incorporating high-resolution terrain metrics into agronomic risk assessments can substantially strengthen land-use planning, soil conservation strategies, and climate-resilient agricultural management. Thus, there is urgent need for altitude- and slope-responsive interventions including erosion control, vegetative reinforcement, precision nutrient management, and landscape-specific conservation practices to safeguard soil health and ensure sustainable agricultural productivity in the highly diverse and vulnerable eastern region of India.

The journal retracts the article titled, “Occurrence, Distribution, Damage Potential, and Farmers’ Perception on Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J [...]

Soil carbon (C) depletion is a prime indicator of land degradation. Cropping system intensification with short-duration legumes is a perceived important strategy to restore soil C in agricultural land. Hence, the impact of six cropping systems (maize [Zea mays]-French bean [Phaseolus vulgaris], maize-soybean [Glycine max], maize-urdbean [Vigna mungo], maize-mungbean [Vigna radiata], maize-toria [Brassica campestris var. toria], and maize-fallow) was evaluated on soil C fractions and pools, C-resilience, C management index, and soil biological properties in a fixed plot fashion for 7 years in Meghalaya, India. Results showed that the maize-French bean system sequestered maximum C (0.54 and 0.51 Mg ha-1 year-1) at 0-10 and 10-20 cm soil depth, respectively. Furthermore, the maize-French bean system had 6.52% and 11.91% higher active soil C pools over the maize-fallow system at 0-10 and 10-20 cm soil depth, respectively. Concerning SOC fractions, soils under the maize-French bean had the maximum VLC (37.66%) and NLC (34.31%) proportion in SOC, followed by the maize-soybean system at soil depth of 0-10 cm. The upper soil depth (0-10 cm) had more C depletion and lower C recovery over lower soil layers (10-20 cm depth), regardless of cropping systems. The maize-French bean system had 25.7% and 30.2% less soil C depletion over the maize-fallow system at a soil depth of 0-10 and 10-20 cm, respectively. More interestingly, soil under maize-French bean had maximum C-resilience and C-sensitivity index. Concerning soil biological properties, the soil in the maize-French bean system recorded maximum SMBC (295.75 mu g g-1 soil) and DHA (15.48 mu g TPF g-1 soil h-1) at 0-10 cm depth. However, acid phosphatase activities were maximum in the maize-soybean cropping system (2.71 and 1.97 mu g p-nitrophenol g-1 soil h-1 in 0-10 and 10-20 cm, respectively). The study inferred that the inclusion of French bean and/or soybean as a succeeding crop in the maize monocropping system is a highly effective approach for restoring soil C and improving soil biological properties in the uplands of Meghalaya region of India.

Long-term land-use transitions significantly alter soil nutrient dynamics, microbiological functions, and carbon (C) pool distributions in the soil profile. This study assessed the long-term effects of converting a 50-year-old primary forest into cultivated land-use systems, namely, agriculture (AGLU), horticulture (HOLU), and agroforestry (AFLU), over a period of 20-26 years in the Eastern Himalayas, India. The soil was taken to a depth of 1.0 m, with increments of 0.15 m until 0.60 m and 0.20 m until 1.0 m. The evaluation was carried out to assess macro- and micronutrient storage, microbial biomass, enzymatic activities, and total and fractionated organic carbon (C) pools. The depletion of nutrients (macro: -52.6% to -59.2%, micro: -20.4% to -61.6%) and biological properties (SMBC: -40.7%, enzymes: -25.5% to -40.2%) was the most severe in the top soil (0.15 m) under agricultural land use. In contrast, AFLU and HOLU retained higher nutrient levels and C-pools, both in surface (0-15 cm) and subsoil layers (15-100 cm). Cultivation significantly (p < 0.05) reduced soil organic carbon and its fractions in both surface and sub-surface soils when compared to primary forest (FOLU). The degradation index confirmed greater resilience of tree-based systems compared to seasonal cropping. These findings support the promotion of agroforestry and perennial horticulture, which can help restore degraded soils in upland ecosystems.

The development of cropping systems that simultaneously enhanced farm profitability, reduce energy dependence and limit greenhouse gas emissions is central to climate smart agriculture in south Asia. The study evaluated the energy balance, carbon footprint; carbon budgeting and economic performance of no-till maize legume cropping systems under different residue based mulching practices in the lower Indo-Gangetic plains of eastern India. A 2-year field experiment (2017-2019) was conducted at Sriniketan, West Bengal; India, involving three maize based cropping systems (maize-chickpea, maize-lentil, and maize-lathyrus) combined with five biomass mulching treatments. System productivity, energy input-output relationships, carbon efficiency, greenhouse gas emissions, and economic returns were quantified using standardized energy and emission coefficients. Among the cropping systems, maize-chickpea consistently recorded higher system productivity, energy output, net energy gain, and profitability than maize-lentil and maize-lathyrus systems. Residue-based mulching significantly influenced system performance; the combination of in situ maize stalk mulch with paddy straw applied at 5 t ha-1 produced the highest energy use efficiency, energy productivity, gross returns, and benefit-cost ratio. Although biomass mulching increased carbon inputs and associated emissions related to no mulch treatments, higher crop biomass production under mulched plots improved carbon efficiency and the carbon sustainability index. The no mulch treatment exhibited the lowest carbon footprint due to reduced external carbon inputs, but at the expense of lower productivity and farm income. The results demonstrated the residue-based no-till maize-legume systems can achieve a favourable balance between energy efficiency, economic viability, and carbon sustainability. Despite higher carbon inputs under biomass mulching increased biomass production improved carbon efficiency and carbon sustainability indices. The results indicate that optimized residue based no till maize-legume systems can enhance productivity and farm income while maintaining acceptable productivity scaled environmental performance, supporting climate smart agriculture in the Indo-Gangetic plains.

Identifying a suitable production system is crucial for ensuring long-term food security and climate resilience in the North Eastern Himalayas of India. Thus, the field experiment on organic, inorganic, and integrated nutrient management (INM) was evaluated to assess its impact on productivity, profitability, and sustainability under raised and sunken beds (RSB). In sunken beds, Lampnah produced the highest grain (4.23 Mg ha-1) and protein yield (330 kg ha-1). While, in raised beds, the okra-carrot system with INM showed the highest system productivity and sustainable yield index (SYI). Further, the highest net return (857 $ ha-1) was recorded in Lampnah, and 100 % organic had a 5.56–6.52 % grater return than the others. Similarly, in raised beds had the highest production cost was incurred in the okra-potato system (1394 $ ha-1), while okra-carrot and INM systems showed the highest net returns (4885 $ ha-1 and 4477 $ ha-1, respectively). Likewise, the energy use efficiency (EUE), and energy output (EO) were highest in 75 %, and 100 % organic systems in sunken beds, and in okra-carrot and 100 % organic systems in raised beds. Further, 100 % organic treatments also improved the soil organic carbon (SOC) along with a greater carbon sustainability index (CSI), and carbon use efficiency (CUE). Thus, the study clearly demonstrates that, the integration of organic, and INM under RSB improves productivity, profitability, carbon storage, and environmental sustainability, contributing to food security in the North Eastern Himalayas.

The most common cropping production system in South Asia, transplanted puddled rice followed by conventional-tillage wheat, is highly unsustainable, extremely energy-intensive, and emits a large amount of greenhouse gases. The practices used in conservation agriculture, including diversified cropping rotations, residue retention, zero-tillage direct-seeded rice, and zero-tillage wheat, can increase crop productivity while reducing energy use requirements and carbon footprints. Therefore, to promote a sustainable and energy-efficient conservation agriculture-based system with a less energy-intensive rice–wheat system, contrasting tillage and residue management scenarios were evaluated in this study. The treatments include triple cropping systems of zero-tillage direct-seeded rice (ZTDSR) during the rainy season, followed by zero-tillage rice–wheat–mungbean (ZTRWM) in winter, as well as zero-tillage rice–lentil–mungbean (ZTRLM), zero-tillage rice–chickpea–mungbean (ZTRCM), and zero-tillage rice–mungbean–mustard (ZTRMM) along with the conventional-tillage rice–wheat (CTRW) system. Zero-tillage systems exhibited significantly lower operational energy for irrigation (~40%), sowing (~26%), and land preparation (100%) compared to a conventional-tillage (CT) system. Compared to the conventional-tillage rice–wheat system, zero-tillage cropping systems achieved significantly higher system biomass yields. The zero-tillage system also increased wheat yields, resulting in a significant reduction in resources (fuel, fertilizer, and machinery) under zero-tillage (ZT) interventions. More than 60% of energy utilization came from crop residue, irrespective of the diverse cropping production systems. The maximum net energy returns, energy ratios, energy productivity, and energy intensity were recorded with the zero-tillage rice–wheat system. Zero-tillage production systems had significantly lower carbon footprints, higher carbon efficiency, and better carbon sustainability index than the conventional-tillage (CT) management system. Thus, it can be concluded that triple-zero-tillage production systems, along with residue management, yield lower net energy output, greenhouse gas emissions, and carbon footprints as compared to conventional-tillage-based systems.

Achieving sustainable development in agri-food production systems requires integrated strategies that boost productivity while preserving soil and environmental health. This study examined the conservation agriculture (CA) practices (tillage, crop residue management, and phosphorus fertilization) on the performance of a maize–wheat (M-W) system in India. A two-year field experiment involving fifteen treatment combinations was conducted. The results showed that zero tillage (ZT) with residue retention (+R) and phosphorus dose (34.4 kg P ha⁻¹) produced the highest (8.17 t ha⁻¹) maize equivalent yield (MEY), system productivity (15.5 t P ha⁻¹), and net economic return ($2701 ha⁻¹). This strategies also significantly enhanced soil organic carbon, water-stable aggregates, microbial biomass, and enzymatic activities. In contrast, phosphorus application with microbial inoculants under ZT without residue (-R) yielded the highest energy use efficiency (23.3). These integrated practices further increased the net energy return to 373 × 10³ MJ ha⁻¹. The findings demonstrate that integrating CA-practices and optimal phosphorus management enhances system productivity, profitability, and soil sustainability. These practices support national goals for agri-food security, climate resilience, and environmental sustainability, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals.

A field experiment was conducted for three consecutive years during 2019–20, 2020–21 and 2021–22 at ICAR-Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar to assess the best and profitable rice (Oryza sativa L.) based cropping system through crop diversification for sustainable agriculture. Diversification of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with rabi vegetables and inclusion of green gram (Vigna radiata L.) during summer season in rice-wheat cropping system was studied with rice cultivars of different duration. The rice-cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)-spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)-green gram system recorded the highest system productivity with a rice equivalent yield of 34.26 t/ha, followed by the rice-broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica)-spring onion (Allium fistulosum)-green gram system (32.47 t/ha) which were more than double as compared to rice-wheat-green gram system (12.29 t/ha). Land use efficiency was recorded maximum in rice-tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)-green gram system (95.34%) and minimum in rice-garden pea (Pisum sativum L.)-green gram system (82.19%). Growing shorter duration rice cultivar (Swarna Shreya) in the cropping systems significantly enhanced the system productivity, system production efficiency and income as compared to longer duration rice variety in different cropping systems. Diversification of wheat with rabi vegetables enhanced the gross return, net return and benefit cost ratio irrespective of rice duration. The cropping intensity was also increased by diversifying wheat with cauliflower and broccoli grown after short duration rice (400%), as it provided an opportunity to grow a short span crop in the rabi season itself before sowing of green gram during summer season.

Recurrent flooding in Southeast Asia has a significant impact on rice production, particularly in flood-prone regions like West Bengal, India. This state, a major rice producer, experiences frequent floods, making its districts highly vulnerable. Geospatial resource modeling offers an effective method for assessing natural resources in such areas. This study focused on Malda district, a flood-affected, rice-based ecosystem, analyzing key resources such as rice production, rainfall, land use, land cover, and soil nutrients. The research used secondary time-series data and primary survey data to model these resources. Statistical models, including the Gompertz and Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average with Explanatory Variables (ARIMAX), were applied alongside Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) for spatial analysis. The IDW model revealed an increase in both water bodies and cropped areas in Malda between 2017 and 2021. Results showed that the northern part of the district received more rainfall, while the south experienced more rainy days. Soil nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, were found to be low to medium in the district’s eastern and southern parts. The Gompertz model showed a steady increase in rice productivity over the past two decades, while the ARIMAX (0, 2, 1) model indicated that rainfall positively impacted rice yields. Notably, rice productivity in flood-prone areas surpassed the district average, due to farmers adopting adaptive strategies like new cropping patterns to mitigate flood risks. This study provides a valuable framework for stakeholders and policymakers to develop resource-based adaptation strategies for sustainable rice cultivation in flood-prone ecosystems.

A fundamental necessity in advancing sustainable crop production lies in the establishment of a reliable technique for assessing soil health. Soil health assessment is a challenge considering multiple interactions among dynamic indicators within various management strategies and agroecological contexts. Hence a study was conducted to determine the soil health variables, quantify the soil health index (SHI), and validate them with the productivity of rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) system for the Indo Gangetic basin of Bihar, India, under four contrasting agro-climatic zones (ACZ-I, II, IIIA & IIIB). For this study, 100 soil samples (0-15 cm) from each ACZ with a total of 400 soil samples were obtained for analyzing 20 soil health variables (soil physical, chemical, and biological properties). To identify SHI and important soil health variables, principal component analysis (PCA) was employed. Apart from specific variables, soil pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), available Zn and available water capacity (AWC) were identified as common indicators for the four ACZs. Results revealed that under the rice-wheat cropping system, ACZ-IIIB soils had a higher SHI (0.19-0.70) than other ACZs. SHI of ACZ-IIIB was significantly influenced by SOC (19.32 %), available P (10.52 %), clay (10.43 %), pH (10.80 %), and soil respiration (9.8 %). The strong relationship between SHI and system productivity of the rice-wheat

Agriculture in India is facing several challenges which together are manifested into the sustainability issues. The broad contours of the agricultural production system in the country have been defined by the need to achieve food security which calls for close attention to rice–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cropping system of the Indo Gangetic Plains (IGP) whose sustainability is under threat. Degradation of natural resources, severe biotic and abi otic stresses specially drought, floods, pest infestations with accompanying impacts on biodiversity and agricultural productivity are the major constraints to agricultural development. Further, climate change has gained significant global attention over the past decade due to concerns of deleterious long-term impacts on agriculture, water sup ply, human welfare, regional and political stability. All the related issues need to be addressed on priority, with par ticular emphasis on soil-carbon through a holistic approach. As the strategy brings focus on income of farmers, the agricultural technology needs to move from “Production oriented-Green Revolution” to “Farmer’s Income oriented Revolution” and environmentally sustainable farming. Therefore, for long-term sustainability in agriculture, 4 pil lars/ components (good agricultural practices, climate-change mitigation and adaptation, diversification of high value crops and biodiversity management) needs to be addressed properly, more importantly good agricultural practices (GAP). The GAPs are based on the principles of risk prevention, risk analysis, sustainable agriculture, and integrated crop management (ICM), which are of utmost importance in present time. The GAPs for agricultural sustainability are reduced tillage, conservation agriculture, resource-conservation technologies (RCTs), erosion control measures, diversified cropping system, micro-irrigation, balanced fertilization, manuring, watershed man agement, organic farming, and integrated farming systems etc. Now that the vision is to impart income security to the farmers of the country, diversification of the system across all the sub-sectors of agriculture assumes impor tance which is, indeed a de-risking mechanism capable of negotiating both endogenous and exogenous risks as sociated with the system. The effective and efficient management of agro-biodiversity is also essential through management of genebanks, science-led innovations; livelihood, food and nutrition security though crop diversifica tion, use of lesser-known crops and wild relatives in crop improvement; dealing appropriately with quarantine, bio safety and bio-security.

AbstractThe pursuit of sustainable agriculture has become imperative in addressing global food security challenges while minimizing environmental impacts. Recent innovations in nanotechnology have given rise to a promising solution: nanofertilizers. Research reveals that these nanofertilizers can significantly enhance nutrient use efficiency, reducing environmental consequences, and advancing the cause of cleaner production. With potential increases of up to 30% in nutrient use efficiency and 20% in crop yields compared to traditional fertilizers, nanofertilizers demonstrate the capability to substitute up to 50% of conventional fertilizers, thereby diminishing their ecological footprint. This review paper explores the emerging trends and advancements in the field of nanofertilizers and their potential to revolutionize modern agriculture. We delve into the fundamental concepts of nanofertilizers, including their unique characteristics and controlled-release mechanisms. We analysed the impact of nanofertilizers on crop productivity, quality, and growth through the lens of research findings and case studies. While acknowledging the substantial potential of nanofertilizers, we also address environmental and safety considerations, emphasizing the importance of responsible deployment. In an era prioritizing environmental concerns, nanofertilizers offer a promising solution to meet growing food demands while protecting ecosystems. Graphical Abstract

Seasonal variations directly impact the biochemical and microbial properties of the soil, influence carbon and nutrient cycling within the soil system. Soils under tree plantation (TP) are rich in organic matter and microbial population, making them more susceptible to seasonal variation. We studied the effect of seasonal variations in soil chemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), C/N ratio etc) and microclimate (moisture and temperature) on microbial respiration (SR), biomass, and carbon (C) utilization efficiency under 13 years old Kadamb (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.), Simaraubha (Simarouba glauca DC), and Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) based TPs in middle Gangetic region. In contrast to higher SR and metabolic quotient (qCO(2)) in winter, the microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) in fall > summer > spring > winter, irrespective of TPs. The positive relationship between qCO(2) and C/N ratios strongly supports the dependence of microbes on soil carbon for respiration. qCO(2) had a significantly positive relationship with soil moisture (MC) and Electrical conductivity (EC), but a significantly negative relationship with temperature and pH. Higher MBN/TN and MBC/TOC ratios fall under simaraubha, and litchi-based TPs indicated more nitrogen (N) and carbon accumulation into microbial biomass. The seasonal variation of MBC/MBN ratios signifies the changes in microbial communities and fungi dominate over bacteria during winter, as bacteria have a lower C/N ratio than fungi. Stepwise regression analysis suggested that soil properties and micro-climate regulated microbial biomass and SR differ with TPs. Thus, the study indicates that microbial activities and biomass production can significantly influence by soil properties and seasonal variations under TPs.

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