Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as persistent environmental pollutants with adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. Conventional removal methods, such as filtration and sedimentation, primarily rely on physical separation without addressing the degradation of MPs, leading to their accumulation and the risk of secondary pollution. This review explores the potential of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), including photocatalysis, electrochemical oxidation, Fenton processes, sulfate radical-based oxidation, sonochemical treatment, ozonation, and plasma technologies, which generate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species capable of promoting polymer chain scission, microbial biodegradation, and the oxidative fragmentation and mineralization of MPs into non-toxic byproducts. Hybrid AOP systems combined with biological treatments or membrane-based filtration are also examined for their effectiveness in degrading MPs, as well as for scalability and the environmental impacts of their byproducts when integrated into existing wastewater treatment systems. The review further discusses challenges related to operational parameters, energy consumption, and the formation of secondary pollutants. By identifying current knowledge gaps and future research directions, this review provides insights into optimizing AOPs and integrations of AOPs with biological treatments or membrane-based processes for sustainable MP remediation and water treatment applications.

Biomass-derived biochar has recently emerged as a promising and sustainable precursor for graphene-like carbon materials due to its high carbon content, thermal stability, and tunable porous structure. During pyrolysis, biomass undergoes thermochemical decomposition that can promote the formation of aromatic carbon networks and partially ordered graphitic domains. However, the relationship between pyrolysis parameters and the structural evolution of biochar toward graphene-like carbon remains fragmented in the current literature. This review systematically synthesizes recent studies on the production of graphene-like carbon from biomass-derived biochar. Relevant publications were identified and screened following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework to ensure a transparent and structured literature selection process. Particular attention is given to the influence of key pyrolysis parameters-including temperature, heating rate, feedstock type, and reactor atmosphere-on carbon structural ordering, pore development, and aromaticity. In addition, widely used characterization techniques such as Raman spectroscopy (ID/IG ratio), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area analysis, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) are discussed to evaluate graphene-like properties in biochar. The reviewed studies indicate that pyrolysis temperature plays a dominant role in promoting aromatization and graphitic domain growth. Overall, controlled pyrolysis conditions are essential for tailoring biomass-derived biochar toward graphene-like carbon structures and enabling the development of sustainable graphene precursors.

Titanium-based perovskites have garnered significant attention for photocatalytic applications, particularly in the field of environmental remediation through the degradation of synthetic dyes and pharmaceuticals in aqueous solutions. This review paper aims to explore the synthesis methods, crystal structures, photoactivity, and photocatalytic performance of titanium-based perovskites in degrading synthetic dye and pharmaceutical effluents in water. The unique advantages of titanium-based perovskites as photocatalysts, associated with their high redox potentials and excellent optical and electrical properties, are highlighted. Their limitations in visible light absorption and photocatalytic efficiency due to rapid charge carrier recombination are also discussed. Several strategies to overcome these limitations, such as surface modifications of the photocatalysts, metal and non-metal doping, the introduction of structure defects, the formation of heterojunctions with electron-accepting materials, and the deposition of plasmonic metal nanoparticles are systematically examined. This review also provides an overview of the photocatalytic degradation of dyes and pharmaceuticals as emerging contaminants, utilizing titanium-based perovskites as photocatalysts, to highlight their efficiency and potential for real-word applications. By covering research findings, current knowledge, and future perspectives, this review aims to stimulate advancements in the design and application of titanium-based perovskite photocatalysts.

The photocatalytic degradation of ibuprofen (IBU) in aqueous solution using titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) as a photocatalyst activated by 365 nm UV light irradiation was systematically investigated. The degradation of IBU was monitored by absorption spectroscopy, and the resulting overlapping spectra were deconvoluted to determine the concentrations of residual IBU and its photocatalytic degradation products. Effective immobilization and strong affinity of IBU for the photocatalyst surfaces were evidenced by the maximum adsorption capacity of 126 ± 4 mg g-1 on TiO2 NPs. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that the stable photocatalytic degradation products were 1-(4-isobutylphenyl)ethanol, 4-isobutylbenzaldehyde, and 4-isobutyl-1-ethylbenzene, rather than complete mineralization to carbon dioxide and water. The degradation pathways were proposed to involve hydroxyl radical (OH˙) attack on the carboxylic group of IBU, leading to the formation of short-lived intermediates, followed by decarboxylation, hydroxylation, and demethylation reactions. The photocatalytic degradation was endothermic and spontaneous, accompanied by an increase in disorder. Based on the simplified Langmuir-Hinshelwood model, the observed degradation rate constant was 1.31 ± 0.02 × 10-2 min-1, primarily governed by mass transfer from the bulk solution to the photocatalyst surfaces. Toxicity assessments indicated that the photocatalytic degradation products of IBU are less toxic toward Artemia salina larvae, suggesting a reduced toxicity risk to microorganisms in the environment.

This study examines the effect of aging time on the structural evolution and surface properties of Zeolite NaX synthesized from low-grade bauxite and rice husk ash, sustainable alumina and silica sources, respectively. Synthesis was performed through alkali fusion, aging, and hydrothermal crystallization. Aging duration was varied to evaluate its influence on phase formation, crystallinity, morphology, and specific surface area. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra showed progressive changes in the Si–O–Al and Si–O vibrations, indicating evolution of the aluminosilicate framework during aging. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed that prolonged aging promoted stabilization of precursor phases prior to hydrothermal treatment. However, excessive aging reduced the conversion efficiency toward the Faujasite (FAU) framework, resulting in lower crystallinity of Zeolite NaX. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis demonstrated a significant decrease in specific surface area with increasing aging time, indicating limited pore development and suppressed zeolitization, with highest surface area is 90.589 m2/g. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed morphological evolution associated with extended aging. The results demonstrate that aging time critically controls precursor stability, crystallization behavior, and surface characteristics of Zeolite NaX synthesized from low-grade bauxite and rice husk ash.

Photocatalytic degradation of acid fuchsin (AF) and basic fuchsin (BF) dyes on anatase titania nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) activated under 365 nm light was systematically investigated to elucidate the role of sulfonate groups in the degradation of triphenylmethane textile dyes. The photocatalytic degradation rate, kinetics, rate-limiting steps, and thermodynamics parameters were evaluated by analyzing experimental data using the Langmuir–Hinshelwood, Weber-Morris, Arrhenius, and Eyring models. The results showed that, up to 180 min of irradiation, the average degradation rate of AF was 0.268 ± 0.012 μM min–1, approximately twofold higher than that of BF (0.138 ± 0.010 μM min–1), while other aspects of the photocatalytic degradation of AF and BF dyes were comparable. The higher degradation rate of AF, compared with BF, was attributed to the presence of its additional sulfonate groups, which together with amino groups induced a push-full effect, enhancing charge delocalization and intermolecular interactions with surface atoms of the photocatalyst. LC–MS and FTIR analyses revealed that the degradation pathways involved radical-induced breakdown of the triphenylmethane structure, followed by hydroxylation, desulfonation, ring opening, demethylation, and dealkylation, ultimately forming smaller aromatic compounds. Both AF and BF dyes produced several identical photocatalytic degradation products, which were further mineralized upon prolonged irradiation. Brine shrimp lethality assays indicated that the photocatalytic degradation products were essentially non-toxic and therefore less harmful to the aquatic environment than their parent fuchsin dyes.

Growing global freshwater scarcity has intensified demand for efficient seawater desalination technologies, yet conventional cellulose acetate (CA) membranes remain limited by insufficient hydrophilicity and suboptimal salt rejection performance. In this study, CA was combined with graphene oxide (GO) to produce CA/GO composite membranes, and their salt rejection performance in a seawater loose nanofiltration system was reported. These membranes were synthesized via phase inversion by varying GO concentration to be 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 wt% into CA polymer as matrices at 15 and 25 wt%. The structural, chemical, and morphological properties of raw materials and the membranes were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FESEM-EDX), and water contact angle measurements. The results showed that the CA 15 wt%/GO 1 wt% membrane demonstrated the most favorable balance of performance, achieving a water flux of 11.80 L/m²·h and the highest salt rejection of 37.75%, corresponding to a permeate TDS of 23,033 mg/L, alongside the lowest water contact angle of 74.12° among equivalent CA-concentration membranes, indicating enhanced hydrophilicity. The XRD analysis confirmed increased crystallinity (up to 58.08%) with introduction of GO while the FESEM revealed a uniform GO dispersion within the CA polymer matrix. These findings demonstrate that controlled GO incorporation into CA membranes significantly enhances membrane hydrophilicity and salt rejection efficiency, establishing CA/GO composites as a viable and scalable platform for seawater loose nanofiltration applications as pre-treatment.

This study aimed to synthesize Zeolite A from Bangka kaolin and evaluate its potential as a high-performance host material for fluorescent compounds in latent fingerprint identification. Zeolite A was synthesized using the hydrothermal method and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The characterization results confirmed the successful formation of Zeolite A with an optimum crystallization time of 5 h, producing a crystallinity of 47%. Structural analysis indicated the development of a uniform aluminosilicate framework suitable for hosting fluorescent molecules. Fluorescence spectroscopy was employed to investigate the optical performance of the zeolite-based fluorescent material under different dye concentrations and contact times. The results showed that the highest fluorescence intensity was achieved at 100% dye concentration with a contact time of 30 min. The enhanced fluorescence emission demonstrated Zeolite A's ability to serve as an efficient host matrix for fluorescent compounds.

The present work describes the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using Baccaurea macrocarpa peel extract and their potential applications as photocatalysts and antibacterial agents. The synthesis was conducted at different temperatures ranging from 25 to 120 °C. The chemical composition, crystal structure, optical characteristic, and surface morphology of the as-synthesized ZnO NPs, without subsequent calcination, were investigated using various spectroscopic and imaging techniques. Characterization results revealed that ZnO NPs synthesized at 25 and 40 °C formed semicrystalline nanolayers, whereas those synthesized at 90 and 120 °C exhibited a hexagonal wurtzite structure. Despite their difference in crystallinity, all the ZnO NPs exhibited comparable bandgap energies in the range of 3.26–3.45 eV and contained organic compounds likely originating from the B. macrocarpa peel extract. Among the synthesized samples, ZnO-90, consisting of wurtzite ZnO nanocrystals synthesized at 90 °C, exhibited the highest photocatalytic and antibacterial performance. They effectively degraded both anionic and cationic dyes, including methyl violet, indigo carmine, and methyl orange, under UV light irradiation and inhibited the growth of the Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus and the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. These results indicate that the photocatalytic and antibacterial activities of ZnO NPs are strongly governed by the long-range atomic arrangement within their crystal structure.

A pyro-hydrometallurgical method was developed to extract rare earth elements (REEs) from Belitung silica sand, a low-grade and underutilized resource. Roasting at 700 °C effectively reduced the content of major impurities such as Al by 68

Nanocomposites are used as antibacterial agents in the pharmacology sector. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the synthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity of the transition metal-nanochitosan composites (TM-NCs) using Ni (nickel), Cu (cuprum), Zn (zinc), and Ag (silver) as TM and nanochitosan as the nanomaterial. TM-NCs were synthesized using precipitation method with sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as a cross-linking agent. The synthesized products were characterized using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) instruments. The metal phase attached to NCs was a metal oxide with irregular particle shapes and various particle sizes. Meanwhile, chitosan and STPP functional groups, namely NH2 and P-O were bound to the metal to form TM-NCs nanocomposite. The test for antibacterial activity against gram-positive (Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615 and Bacillus cereus ATCC 10556) and gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC 11229 and Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883) bacterial strains was carried out using the well-diffusion method. The results showed that Ni-NCs antibacterial activity had the largest inhibition zone compared to the other TM-NCs. Furthermore, Ni-NCs presented the largest inhibitory zone diameter (21.74 mm) towards the gram-positive bacterium S. pyogenes.

This study investigates the synthesis and characterization of graphene oxide (GO) derived from two distinct precursors: graphite and pyrolyzed acacia wood sawdust via a modified Hummers method. As hypothesized, the commercial graphite-derived GO (GOG) exhibited a more ordered structure characterized by a well-defined diffraction peak with interlayer separation of 0.86 nm and crystalline order of 8.18 nm, consistent with extensive oxidation. Conversely, the biochar-derived GO (GOB) displayed a heterogenous structure with a less defined (001) plane and an emerging (002) plane corresponding to mixed hybridization states (sp2/sp3) and mixed crystallinity at different regions in the materials. Additionally, it retained excess aromatic carbons (C-H bond) on its basal plane increasing its disorderliness and defect density. As a result, despite the G bands showing greater incorporation of functional groups in GOG, GOB recorded a higher ID/IG ratio (0.95 vs. 0.93). By retaining a relatively higher proportion of sp2 domains, GOB demonstrated enhanced light absorption through additional electronic transmission evident by its lower bandgap energy (2.93) compared to GOG (4.20), extending absorption into the visible range. Its improved properties were further characterized by enhanced conductivity, surface area, porosity, and decreased charge transfer and ion diffusion resistance. The study emphasizes that the nature of defects and their distribution, influenced by the precursor material can influence GO properties than those predicted by oxidation levels alone. It opens a new pathway to exploring bio-precursors and their potential in tailoring the properties of GO for specific applications.

Chitosan is an important natural biopolymer, having a wide range of pharmaceutical, medical, and biomedical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and ability to absorb bioactive compounds. These specific applications require low molecular weight chitosan (LMWC) due to its better biodegradability, biocompatibility, bioactivity, and solubility in water when compared to as-prepared high molecular weight chitosan (HMWC) obtained from the deacetylation of chitin. The conventional methods to convert HMWCs to LMWCs include acid depolymerization and direct photolysis upon UV light irradiation. The use of highly concentrated acids unexpectedly modifies the functional groups of chitosan and has raised the environmental concerns. A recently proposed eco-friendly and efficient approach is advanced oxidation processes utilizing reactive oxygen species to destabilize the glycosidic linkages, followed by hydrolysis and scission of chitosan polymer chains. This review summarizes physical, chemical, and biological properties of chitosan, and applications of this biopolymer especially in pharmaceutical formulation, medicine, biomedicine, agriculture, and wastewater treatment, and insights into methodology, mechanism, and advantages of depolymerization of chitosan using acid hydrolysis, direct photolysis, and photocatalysis, as well as their challenges and limitations in terms of environmental concerns, chemical structure conservation, controllability, and toxicity. The challenges in scaling up the photocatalytic depolymerization process is also discussed based on recovery, reusability, and regeneration of the photocatalysts along with a use of specific facet and morphology of photocatalysts, nanometer-sized multi-phase photocatalysts, and proper photoreactor design and parameters optimization in the photocatalytic depolymerization of chitosan in the future.

A novel eco-friendly method was established to synthesize ultra-small silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)-decorated chitosan films with strong antibacterial activity. The AgNPs were produced by reducing AgNO3 with glucose derived from sucrose hydrolysis under alkaline conditions (pH similar to 12.06) in a chitosan matrix, yielding spherical particles (similar to 8.6 nm) at an optimal 1:4 Ag+ to sucrose molar ratio. Mixing the resulting Chit-AgNPs colloid with glycerol in equal volumes produced a biodegradable Chit-AgNPs/G1 film with mechanical properties that meet biodegradable plastic standards. Antibacterial tests against B. subtilis and E. coli revealed that the film exhibited markedly higher efficacy than its precursors and was comparable or even superior to standard controls (amoxicillin and betadine). Overall, the Chit-AgNPs/G1 film demonstrates exceptional antibacterial performance, positioning it as one of the most effective chitosan-AgNP composites reported to date.

Organic solar cells (OSCs) have garnered attention for their processing simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility. This manuscript explores the incorporation of the organic dye Rhodamine B (RhB) into a binary blend of PTB7-Th:PC70BM, forming air-processed ternary blend OSCs with an inverted architecture. The choice of PTB7Th:PC70BM is driven by its record efficiency exceeding 10 % and compatibility with RhB in terms of photon absorption range and energy level alignment. With an optimal RhB weight content of 0.2 %, the ternary OSCs exhibit a 27 % enhancement in power conversion efficiency (PCE) compared to binary devices. This enhancement is mainly caused by a 13 % increase in short-circuit current density (JSC) and an 11 % increase in fill factor (FF). Steady-state photoluminescence, transient absorption and incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) measurements revealed the role of Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) from RhB to PTB7-Th in contributing to the higher photocurrent in the ternary devices. The improved FF and the enhancement in IPCE at wavelengths where RhB does not absorb suggest enhanced charge generation and transport due to more optimal blend morphology from better chain ordering, as inferred from grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD). Furthermore, the ternary blend displays enhanced photochemical stability and improved device stability under 1 sun illumination in the presence of oxygen. These findings underscore the potential of incorporating organic dyes in OSCs to achieve improved performance and enhanced stability, addressing a critical challenge to the commercial viability of these promising photovoltaic devices.

The photocatalytic degradation of aqueous solutions of cephalexin (CEP) and rifampicin (RIF) antibiotics using strontium titanate nanoparticles (STO NPs) as a photocatalyst activated by 365-nm UV light was investigated. Experimental results demonstrated that the photocatalytic degradation of both antibiotics was efficient and influenced by operational parameters, including photocatalyst dosage, irradiation time, solution pH, initial antibiotic concentration, and the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The kinetics, rate limiting steps, and thermodynamic parameters of the degradation processes were analyzed by fitting the experimental data to the modified Langmuir–Hinshelwood, Weber–Morris intraparticle diffusion, Arrhenius, and Eyring models. The photocatalytic degradation rate constants were estimated to be 0.049 ± 0.005 and 0.012 ± 0.002 min‒1 for CEP and 0.301 ± 0.015 and 0.016 ± 0.002 min‒1 for RIF. The rate limiting steps involved a combination of external mass transfer and intraparticle diffusion onto the surfaces of STO NPs. Thermodynamic analysis indicated that the overall degradation reactions were spontaneous, endothermic, and accompanied by an increase in the surface entropy of the photocatalyst. Radical scavenging experiments confirmed that the degradation process is governed by oxidation reactions involving O2·‒ and OH· radicals generated on the photocatalyst surfaces. Based on the chemical structures of the detected intermediates and degradation products, plausible degradation pathways were proposed, involving fragmentation through ring opening, hydroxylation, deamination, decarboxylation, dealkylation, and demethylation. The environmental safety of the degradation products was preliminarily assessed through antibacterial screening tests, which confirmed a reduction in antibacterial activity compared to the parent antibiotics, suggesting a reduced ecological risk.

This study aimed to investigate the cytotoxicity and antifungal properties of Sm(NO3)3.6H2O salt, chitosan/Sm complex, iron oxide (Fe3O4 NPs), and iron-oxide modified chitosan/Sm/ranitidine microparticles. The microparticles of iron-oxide modified chitosan/Sm/ranitidine composites were synthesized from various masses of Sm(NO3)3.6H2O (250-350 mg), chitosan (2,000-2,500 mg), and (5-25 mg) through the microwave-assisted evaporation method. The Fe3O4 NPs and ranitidine/Sm were mixed with chitosan through a dispersion method by microwave. The toxicity studies of iron-oxide modified chitosan/Sm/ranitidine composites showed 50% lethal concentration in the range from 3,600 to 3,900 mu g/mL on the aquatic crustaceanArtemia salina, suggesting their slight toxicity. Antifungal activities for all samples were determined using the agar diffusion and serial dilution methods. The iron-oxide modified chitosan/Sm/ranitidine composites showed inhibition zone diameter of Aspergillus niger from 18.33 to 14.67 mm at 1,000 mu g/mL. All composites and chitosan/Sm complex showed bioactivity properties with minimum inhibitory concentration values of 2.5 mu g/mL againstA. niger. These composites and chitosan/Sm complex have the same minimum fungicidal concentration, showing the potential to inhibit fungi. Overall results suggested that modifying the structure of chitosan using Sm3+, Fe3O4 NPs, and ranitidine enhanced its physical, chemical, and biological properties as an antifungal agent.

This study aims to evaluate the effect of various ZnO/Bentonite (ZnO/B) composite preparation techniques on their structural characteristics and photocatalytic activity. ZnO/B composites were synthesized using three different methods, namely impregnation (ZnO/B-Imp), ion exchange (ZnO/B-Ion), and doping (ZnO/B-Dop). Each composite was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS), and its photocatalytic activity was tested against methylene blue (MB) under xenon lamp irradiation. FTIR results showed the successful dispersion of ZnO into the bentonite matrix, as indicated by the characteristic Zn-O vibration band observed at 449-438 cm-1. XRD analysis revealed that the ZnO/B-Ion composite had a crystallinity of 50 %, which was higher compared to that of pure bentonite (40 %). The crystallite size of the ZnO phase in this composite was 38.63 nm. In contrast, ZnO/B-Dop showed damage to the Si-O-Al framework due to excessive doping, resulting in a smaller crystallite size of 33.14 nm with a higher crystallinity of 56 %. The ZnO/B-Imp composite had a crystallinity of 37 %, but no clear peaks of ZnO were detected, suggesting that ZnO was dispersed to the surface with small crystalline domains. The band gap energy of bentonite (4.20 eV) decreased to 3.22 eV and 3.78 eV in the ZnO/B-Imp and ZnO/B-Ion, respectively, while it increased to 5.45 eV in ZnO/B-Dop due to structural damage. Photocatalytic performance tests showed that ZnO/B-Ion provided the highest activity with 98 % MB removal in 60 min, surpassing ZnO/B-Imp (59 %) and ZnO/B-Dop (32 %). These results indicate that the ion exchange method produces ZnO/B composites with improved structural and functionality properties, which is critical to the development of effective photocatalysts for dye wastewater treatment.

This study explores the use of raw kaolin (RK) and alkali-activated kaolin (AAK) as eco-friendly adsorbents for the removal of cephalexin (CEP), a widely prescribed antibiotic frequently detected in wastewater and classified as an emerging contaminant, due to its detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems, microorganisms, and human health. The adsorption of CEP on RK and AAK was systematically investigated in batch mode across different operational parameters, including contact time, CEP concentration, adsorbent dosage, pH of medium, and temperature. The adsorption process was monitored using UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy. The adsorption kinetics of CEP on both RK and AAK followed a pseudo-second-order model, and was governed by an initial rapid external mass transport, followed by slower diffusion into the internal pore structure at longer contact times. The equilibrium data were best described by the Langmuir isotherm model, suggesting monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surface sites of the adsorbents. The adsorption capacity of CEP was found to increase from 4.686 +/- 0.203 mg g-1 on RK to 6.605 +/- 0.231 mg g-1 on AAK, which is attributed to the higher surface area of AAK, resulting from the etching effect upon alkali activation of RK. Thermodynamic analysis confirmed that the CEP adsorption was spontaneous and exothermic and contributed to a reduction in surface irregularities. Importantly, adsorption-desorption experiments demonstrated that both RK and AAK can be effectively regenerated and reused for multiple cycles of the antibiotic removal. Characterization of the adsorbents before and after CEP adsorption using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy revealed that CEP molecules were mainly adsorbed through hydrogen bonding and weak electrostatic interactions. These findings highlight the ecological and economic advantages of using natural and AAK as sustainable and cost-effective adsorbents to tackle the growing challenge of pharmaceutical residues in wastewater treatment.

In this study, activated carbon was synthesized from palm oil empty fruit bunches through two different carbonization and activation processes and was used as carbon-based electrodes for supercapacitor. The activated carbon was produced by a combination of the hydrothermal and pyrolysis methods using melamine as a nitrogen source dopant and potassium chloride as an activating agent. The effect of pyrolysis temperature on the crystalline structure, crystallite size, functional groups, and surface characteristics of the resulting activated carbon, which was applied as electrodes in an electric double-layer capacitor. The performance of the activated carbon-based electrodes was evaluated, suggesting that activated carbon prepared by pyrolysis at 950 degrees C showed the highest specific capacitance of 389.122 F/g at a current density of 1 A/g with energy and power densities of 13.511 and 125 W/kg, respectively. Overall results suggest that palm oil empty fruit bunches are promising cellulosic sources in synthesizing activated carbon-based electrodes for supercapacitors. Activated carbon is synthesized from palm oil empty fruit bunches by a combination of the hydrothermal and pyrolysis methods using melamine as a nitrogen source dopant and potassium chloride as an activating agent. The effect of pyrolysis temperature on the resulting activated carbon is assessed.