SummaryTo explain the variation in the salaries of specialized workers in São Paulo's industries of transformation, we have used a model made up of five variables: the person's occupational preparation, the influence he may exert within the company because of his occupation, his age, his seniority in the company, and his time on the job.The data obtained for the total sample show clearly that the status of the worker within the company (occupational influence) as well as his occupational preparation and age, are powerful partial determinants of salary levels in São Paulo. On the whole, training is the most powerful of these variables because it has a strong direct effect on wages and because it has an indirect effect on wages through its impact on occupational influence level. Variables indicating experience in the company (seniority) and in the present job are almost negligible. The results suggest the presence of a modern industrial structure where one's technical preparation and position in the company are closely related and where these factors weigh far more heavily than experience on the job and in the company.Except for age, the viable variables used here are special cases of major status dimension: wealth (wages); power (occupational influence); informational status (occupatibnal preparation or education). Occupational prestige was also investigated and, in a stepwise regression, was found useless as a determinant of wages. In this research we explore, possibly for the first time, the use of a power variable, occupational influence, as a determinant of a reward variable, hourly wages. Though theoretically promising, power has previously been remarkably resistant to empirical analysis. Although our use of occupational influence has been successful, the introduction of new variables is always risky. We hope that others will conduct studies leading either to refinements in the use of this and similar indicators or to their rejection.Also, recent publications report only a small effect of most known variables on individual income differentials in the United States. Perhaps adding occupational influence might help. It is worth repeating that in the present data‐set, this variable alone explains just about as much variance in hourly wages (23 per cent) as a set of 13 repressors does on job income (27 per cent) in data analyzed by Spaeth. The whole set of five variables is, of course, more effective here, with 36 per cent of the variance explained. These differences may be due to many factors. It would seem that education may be more influential in Brazil—or at least in this sample —than in the United States. Clearly, educated personnel are in shorter supply than in the United States, and the relative rewards may be greater. If this is true, the rewards for education should decrease as Brazil's education system improves.In any case, by its clear elimination of job experience and seniority, and its strong support for occupational training, occupational influence level, and age, we hope the present work may add to the growing body of evidence regarding the determinants of wage differentials, especially in Brazil and perhaps in other dynamic third world sectors.

Data taken in 1970–1971 from three university-trained occupational groups (2796 engineers, 1430 economists/business-administrators, and 162 basic scientists) in São Paulo's manufacturing industries are used in a path analysis to draw interoccupational comparisons concerning the antecedents of occupational wage differentials. The worker's total hourly wage is the dependent variable. A new variable, occupational influence level, is employed as immediately antecedent to wage, as in job experience (years in the present job). Years of advanced education, age, and seniority in the firm are treated as exogenous variables. Similarities and differences among occupations are discussed. As a whole the analysis illustrates a strategy of comparative occupational analysis.

Data from 34,118 American high school students are used to evaluate the Occupational Aspiration Scale (OAS). The OAS is successively reevaluated for each of 16 subsamples (cells) generated by cross-classifying respondents by grade in school (9–12), sex, and socioeconomic status (SES). In each cell the OAS is found to be essentially unifactorial, and that factor is identified as level of occupational aspiration (LOA). The reliability of the OAS is slightly lower among females (rkk = .681) than among males (rkk = .756); it does not vary appreciably by grade or SES. The mean scores are lower for youth from low SES families than for those from high SES families, in accord with previous research. Mean OAS differences due to sex and grade are small. No important differences by age, sex, or SES are found in the standard deviations of the test scores. This and previously published data from small, local samples indicate that the reliability and validity of the OAS are sufficient for research on high school youth of both sexes and from both higher and lower SES levels.

It is probable that the occupational prestige hierarchy we label "Euro-American urban" is characteristic of all or almost all contemporary societal structures. But whether this hierarchy pervades all parts of all societies is a question which has yet to be answered. The present study emphasizes evidence of intrasocietal variation which may have been overlooked and provides new data consistent with the hypothesis that deviation from the Euro-American urban occupational prestige hierarchy is associated with isolation from that culture. Survey data on occupational prestige hierarchies from three Brazilian communities which vary on an index of isolation are presented. Correlations of the Brazilian occupational prestige hierarchies and the U. S. (NORC) hierarchy diminish with increasing isolation of the sampled populations. These results signal a warning to those conducting research on presumed antecedents or consequences of stratification outside the Euro-American cultural system. Isolated sectors of some contemporary societies may have occupational prestige hierarchies (and therefore systems of stratification) which differ from the well-known Euro-American form.

The significant other (SO) is the most precise concept available for use in assessing interpersonal influences on orientational variables. A special set of concepts and corresponding questionnaire- instruments are developed to permit (I) identification of SOs in a given behavior domain, by means of SO Elicitors, and (2) measurement of the variables by which SOs influence individual goal orientations, by means of SO Expectation Elicitors. SO Elicitors use data from the focal individual to identify spe~ cific persons who have told him about himself (definers) or have exempli~ fied (acted as models of) a social role (or more generally, object) or his relationship to it. A given SO may be both definer and model. Four filter categories (meanings) of social roles were inferred from content analysis of responses to depth interviews and from previous research: intrinsic function, extrinsic function, intrinsic' nature, and extrinsic nature. SOs are identified by determining a person's definers and models for filter categories for each type of object. Expectations are elicited directly from named SOs. SOs may hold expectations as to how the focal person (or others like him) would behave with respect to an object or as to how much importance he (or others like him) would attach to a type of filter category for the object. From definer SOs, expectations regarding the focal person himself are elicited; from model SOs who are not definers, expectations regarding youth in general are elicited. Concepts and instruments are tested on educational and occupational orientation data; reliability and validity of SO Elicitors and SO Expectation Elicitors have been checked, and their joint validity has been tested. Partial regression (with seven key variables controlled) of SOs' mean educational expectation levels on a youth's educational aspiration level yields f3 = .46, and of SOs'- mean occu~ pational expectation levels on a youth's occupational aspiration level yields f3 = .52. The analysis demonstrates the validity of the concepts and instru~ ments in one domain of behavior and suggests their potential usefulness in others.

IN their recent article Woelfel and Haller ( 1971 ) posed a theory for the attainment of education that is diagramatically presented in Figure 1. The variables are: X1: Academic performance X2: Measured mental ability X3: Educational aspirations X4: Occupational aspirations X5: Significant others' educational expectations X6: Significant others' occupational expectations X7: Father's occupational prestige level

The purpose of this paper is to ascertain whether a recently proposed recursive model of the educational and occupational attainment process that had been evaluated for farm boys is applicable for youth from more diverse residential backgrounds. The basic question asked in the study is how well the model fits data for young men from communities of differing size. A related aim is to present a model which adequately explains the attainment process for boys from all residential backgrounds. Using data for five community-size categories the Sewell-Haller-Portes model is extended to include three additional paths of influence. The revised model is shown to be quite adequate for the total sample as well as for all sizes of community categories. Suggestions for theory and future research are offered. IN their influential volume, Blau and Duncan (1967) presented a recursive model of the occupational status attainment of American male adults. It is composed of two antecedent structural variables, father's education and father's occupation; two intervening behavioral variables, respondent's education and respondent's first job; and the dependent variable, respondent's occupational level in 1962. For a national sample, their model explains 26% of the variance in respondent's education, 33% of the variance in first job, and 43% of the variance in current occupational status. The addition of selected demographic variables failed to improve the effectiveness of the model. Subsequent research by Duncan, Featherman, and Duncan (1968) resulted in minor modifications. The main objective was to provide a more complete explanation of the process without necessarily increasing the proportion 1 Presented at a joint session of the American Sociological Association and the Rural Sociological Society, San Francisco, September 1969. The research reported herein was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Public Health Service (M-6275) and the Social and Rehabilitation Service, Social Security Administra

Blau and Duncan (1967:165–172) have recently presented a path model of the occupational attainment process of the American adult male population. This basic model begins with two variables describing the early stratification position of each person; these are his father’s educational and occupational attainment statuses. It then moves to two behavioral variables; these are the educational level the individual has completed and the prestige level of his first job. The dependent variable is the person’s occupational prestige position in 1962. That the model is not without power is attested by the fact that it accounts for about 26 percent of the variance in educational attainment, 33 percent of the variance in first job, and 42 percent of the variance in 1962 level of occupational attainment. Various additions to the basic model are presented in the volume, but none is clearly shown to make much of an improvement in it. These include nativity, migration, farm origin, subgroup position, marriage, and assortative mating. Without detracting from the excellence of the Blau and Duncan analysis, we may make several observations. Because the dependent behaviors are occupational prestige attainments—attainment levels in a stratification system—it is appropriate to single out variables indicating father’s stratification position as the most relevant social structural inputs. It is unfortunate that practical considerations prevented the inclusion of psychological inputs in their model, especially considering the repeated references to one such—mental ability—in the literature on differential occupational attainment (Lipset and Bendix, 1959:203–226; Sewell and Armer, 1966). More recently, this gap has been partially filled (Duncan, 1968). Also omitted are social psychological factors which mediate the influence of the input variables on attainment. This, too, is unfortunate in view not only of the speculative theory but also the concrete research in social psychology, which suggests the importance of such intervening variables as reference groups (Merton, 1957:281–386), significant others (Gerth and Mills, 1953:84–91), self-concept (Super, 1957:80–100), behavior expectations (Gross et al., 1958), levels of educational and occupational aspiration (Haller and Miller, 1963; Kuvlesky and Ohlendorf, 1967; Ohlendorf et al., 1967), and experiences of success or failure in school (Parsons, 1959; Brookover et al., 1965).

The hypothesized influence of a best friend's educational and occupational aspirations on the formation of ego's aspirations and the reciprocal influence in the opposite direction can be represented in path diagrams and equation systems involving simultaneous or jointly dependent variables. Standard methods of path analysis may be extended along lines suggested by work in econometrics to secure estimates of coefficients when the models are just identified or overidentified. The most plausible interpretation was reached with a model postulating an underlying factor, "ambition," that is involved in such reciprocal nifluences and accounts for the correlations among the observed indicators, educational aspirations and occupational aspirations. Homophily with respect to background characteristics does not fully explain homophily with respect to ambition; a path coefficient of about 0.2 runs from friend's to respondent's ambition, and one of equal size runs in the opposite direction.

The Personnel and Guidance JournalVolume 42, Issue 5 p. 448-455 A Measure of Level of Occupational Aspiration I.W. MILLER, I.W. MILLER Member of the Technical Staff System Sciences Department, at the MITRE Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts.Search for more papers by this authorA.O. HALLER, A.O. HALLER Professor Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Michigan State University, EastLansing, Michigan.Search for more papers by this author I.W. MILLER, I.W. MILLER Member of the Technical Staff System Sciences Department, at the MITRE Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts.Search for more papers by this authorA.O. HALLER, A.O. HALLER Professor Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Michigan State University, EastLansing, Michigan.Search for more papers by this author First published: January 1964 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-4918.1964.tb04683.xCitations: 17AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL References 1 Cattell, R. B., & Cattell, A. K. S. Test of G-Culture Free Scale 3A. Champaign, Ill.: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, 1950. 2 Cattell, R. B. Factor analysts. New York: Harper, 1952. 3 Cronbach, L. J., & MeehI, P. E. Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychol. Bull., 1955, 52, 281– 302. 4 Empey, LaMar T. Social class and occupational aspiration: A comparison of absolute and relative measurement. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1956, 21, 703– 709. 5 Guttman, Louis. An estimate of communalities that is imagewise consistent and structure-free. Research Report 20, Contract AF41 (657)-76, May 22, 1958. 6 Haller, A. O. The Occupational Aspiration Scale. East Lansing, Mich.: The Social Research Service, Michigan State University, 1957. 7 Haller, A. O. Planning to farm: A social psychological interpretation. Soc. Forces, 1959, 37, 263– 268. 8 Haller, A. O., & Miller, I. W. The Occupational Aspiration Scale: Theory, structure, and correlates. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State Univ., Technical Bulletin 288, 1963. 9 Holloway, R. G., & Berreman, J. V. The educational and occupational aspirations and plans of Negro and white male elementary school students. Pacific sociol. Rev., Fall, 1959, 2, 56– 60. 10 Lewin, K., Dembo, Tamara, Festinger, L., & Sears, Pauline S. Level of aspiration. In J. McV. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders, Vol. 1. New York: Ronald Press, 1944, 333– 378. 11 National Opinion Research Center. Jobs and occupations: A popular evaluation. Opinion News, 1947, 9, 3– 13. 12 Neuhaus, J. O., & Wrigley, C. F. The Quartimax method: An analytic approach to orthogonal simple structure. Brit. J. statist. Psychol., 1954, 7, 81– 91. 13 Rosen, B. C. Race, ethnicity, and achievement. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1959, 24, 47– 60. 14 Sewell, W. H. A short form of the Farm Family Socio-Economic Status Scale. Rural Sociol., 1943, 8, 161– 170. 15 Sewell, W. H., Haller, A. O., & Straus, M. A. Social class and level of educational and occupational aspiration. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1957, 22, 67– 73. 16 Stephenson, Richard M. Mobility orientation and stratification of 1,000 ninth graders. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1957, 22, 204– 212. 17 Institute for Personality and Ability Testing. The 16 P. F. Test, Form B. Champaign, Illinois, 1950. 18 Tiegs, E. W., Clark, W. W., & Thorpe, L. P. California Test of Personality—Secondary Form AA. Los Angeles: California Test Bureau, 1953. Citing Literature Volume42, Issue5January 1964Pages 448-455 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Journal Article Peer Influences on Levels of Occupational and Educational Aspiration Get access A. O. Haller, A. O. Haller Michigan State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar C. E. Butterworth C. E. Butterworth University of Bordeaux Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Social Forces, Volume 38, Issue 4, May 1960, Pages 289–295, https://doi.org/10.2307/2573036 Published: 01 May 1960

The Personnel and Guidance JournalVolume 38, Issue 3 p. 217-221 Attitudes of American Students Differentially Liked by Latin American Students A. O. HALLER, A. O. HALLER A. O. Haller is Associate Professor of Sociology and Anthropology at Michigan State University, East LansingSearch for more papers by this authorBARBARA BRAY, BARBARA BRAY Barbara Bray was formerly a Research Assistant at Michigan State University.Search for more papers by this author A. O. HALLER, A. O. HALLER A. O. Haller is Associate Professor of Sociology and Anthropology at Michigan State University, East LansingSearch for more papers by this authorBARBARA BRAY, BARBARA BRAY Barbara Bray was formerly a Research Assistant at Michigan State University.Search for more papers by this author First published: November 1959 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-4918.1959.tb02528.xCitations: 1 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume38, Issue3November 1959Pages 217-221 RelatedInformation

Journal Article Planning to Farm: A Social Psychological Interpretation Get access A. O. Haller A. O. Haller Michigan State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Social Forces, Volume 37, Issue 3, March 1959, Pages 263–268, https://doi.org/10.2307/2572973 Published: 01 March 1959