OBJECTIVE:To identify organizational service features associated with positive patient ratings of primary care within primary care clinics tailored to accommodate persons with ongoing and recent experiences of homelessness (PEH). DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SETTING:PEH receiving primary care in 29 United States Veterans Health Administration homeless-tailored clinics were surveyed about their primary care experience using the validated Primary Care Quality-Homeless (PCQ-H) survey. Characteristics of the clinics were assessed through surveys of clinic staff using a new organizational survey developed through literature review, site visits, statistical analysis, and consensus deliberation. STUDY DESIGN:Cross-sectional examination of patients' ratings of care based on surveys of patients, and of clinic characteristics, analyzed with Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis, a form of machine learning. DATA COLLECTION METHODS:Patient surveys (n = 3394) were obtained from a random sample of enrolled patients by both mail and telephone by an external survey contractor. Staff (n = 52 from 29 clinics) were interviewed by telephone. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:This analysis identified service features that impact patient experience favorably, including aspects of patient-centeredness, team identity, strong external leadership support, and service that reach beyond traditional primary care clinic confines. Results varied according to the patient experience scale analyzed. Individual characteristics of PEH, such as degree of social support, general health, and unsheltered status, were also correlated with how they rate care. CONCLUSIONS:Organizational characteristics correlate with ratings of primary care from patients with recent and ongoing homelessness. Primary care programs serving homeless individuals can assure better care based on who they hire, how they foster team identity, what services they provide, and the strength of leadership support to protect a homeless-focused mission.

Background: Chronic pain and problematic substance use are prevalent among Veterans with homeless experience (VHE) and may contribute to a challenging primary care experience. Objective: To examine the association of chronic pain and problematic substance use with unfavorable primary care experiences among VHE and to explore the association of pain treatment utilization and unfavorable care experiences in VHE with chronic pain. Methods: We surveyed VHE (n = 3039) engaged in homeless-tailored primary care at 29 Veterans Affairs Medical Centers (VAMCs). We assessed unfavorable primary care experiences with four validated Primary Care Quality-Homeless (PCQ-H) scales: multivariable logistic regressions explored associations between unfavorable care experiences for VHE with chronic pain and problematic substance use, chronic pain alone, problematic substance use alone, or neither. We then examined the association between receipt of pain treatments and unfavorable experiences among VHE with chronic pain. Last, we identified PCQ-H items that had the greatest difference in unfavorable response rates between VHE with and without chronic pain. Results: The prevalence of unfavorable primary care experience was higher on all four scales for patients reporting chronic pain (with or without problematic substance use) (all p < 0.001), but not for problematic substance use alone, compared to VHE with neither pain nor problematic substance use. In analyses limited to VHE with chronic pain, those on long-term opioids were less likely to report an unfavorable experience (OR = 0.49, 95%CI 0.34-0.69). Receipt of occupational therapy was associated with lower odds of reporting an unfavorable experience (OR = 0.83, 95%CI 0707-0.98). PCQ-H items related to trust, relationships, and provider communication had the greatest differences in dissatisfaction ratings (all p < 0.001). Conclusions: Chronic pain is associated with unfavorable primary care experiences among VHE, potentially contributing to poor care outcomes. Strategies are needed to enhance patient-provider trust and communication and increase VHE's access to effective pain treatments.

Background: Over 100 student-run free clinics (SRFCs) operate in the United States (US), typically serving uninsured populations. To date, there has been no effort to compare the patient-reported primary care experience in SRFCs to those of mainstream primary care (PC) clinics serving similar populations. In this study, we surveyed patients at Equal Access Birmingham (EAB), an SRFC, and compared our results to those from two PC clinics serving homeless-experienced clientele. Methods: We surveyed 60 EAB patients with the validated “Primary Care Quality-Homeless” survey. It generates an overall score and 4 subscale scores (clinician-patient Relationship, perceived inter-provider Cooperation, Accessibility/Coordination, Homeless-Specific Needs). We compared EAB’s ratings to those published for a Veterans Affairs (VA) mainstream PC (n=150) clinic and a homeless-tailored non-VA Health Care for the Homeless (HCH) program (n=195). Results: EAB’s ratings were similar to those of the mainstream VA clinic (p>0.4). EAB scored lower than the homeless-tailored non-VA HCH program in each subscale, though the difference did not achieve statistical significance. EAB patients most often praised the staff’s interpersonal skills. Items in which >25% of respondents gave a negative rating concerned wait times (29%), coordination of care (65%), and perceptions of provider skill (43%). Conclusions: Despite constrained resources, an SRFC scored comparably to a mainstream VA PC setting. SRFCs will play a continuing role in care of uninsured individuals, and while these data suggest SRFC patient experiences are mostly favorable, additional resources may be required to approximate the care experience achieved in clinics tailored for homeless persons.

Surveys of underserved patient populations are needed to guide quality improvement efforts but are challenging to implement. The goal of this study was to describe recruitment and response to a national survey of Veterans with homeless experience (VHE). We randomly selected 14,340 potential participants from 26 U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) facilities. A survey contract organization verified/updated addresses from VA administrative data with a commercial address database, then attempted to recruit VHE through 4 mailings, telephone follow-up, and a $10 incentive. We used mixed-effects logistic regressions to test for differences in survey response by patient characteristics. The response rate was 40.2% (n = 5766). Addresses from VA data elicited a higher response rate than addresses from commercial sources (46.9% vs 31.2%, p < .001). Residential addresses elicited a higher response rate than business addresses (43.8% vs 26.2%, p < .001). Compared to non-respondents, respondents were older, less likely to have mental health, drug, or alcohol conditions, and had fewer VA housing and emergency service visits. Collectively, our results indicated a national mailed survey approach is feasible and successful for reaching VA patients who have recently experienced homelessness. These findings offer insight into how health systems can obtain perspectives of socially disadvantaged groups.

Background and Objectives Public health surveillance for overdose sometimes depends on nonfatal drug overdoses recorded in health records. However, the proportion of total overdoses identified through health record systems is unclear. Comparison of overdoses from health records to those that are self-reported may provide insight on the proportion of nonfatal overdoses that are not identified. Methods We conducted a cohort study linking survey data on overdose from a national survey of Veterans to United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) health records, including community care paid for by VA. Self-reported overdose in the prior 3 years was compared to diagnostic codes for overdoses and substance use disorders in the same time period. Results The sensitivity of diagnostic codes for overdose, compared to self-report as a reference standard for this analysis, varied by substance: 28.1% for alcohol, 23.1% for sedatives, 12.0% for opioids, and 5.5% for cocaine. There was a notable concordance between substance use disorder diagnoses and self-reported overdose (sensitivity range 17.9%-90.6%). Discussion and Conclusions Diagnostic codes in health records may not identify a substantial proportion of drug overdoses. A health record diagnosis of substance use disorder may offer a stronger inference regarding the size of the population at risk. Alternatively, screening for self-reported overdose in routine clinical care could enhance overdose surveillance and targeted intervention. Scientific Significance This study suggests that diagnostic codes for overdose are insensitive. These findings support consideration of alternative approaches to overdose surveillance in public health.

Reports have found associations between prescription opioid stoppage and suicide, without detail as to how such suicides happen. Psychological autopsies could be revelatory but require enlisting survivors who may distrust health systems. This pilot assessed the feasibility of using social media to recruit survivors. A multi-disciplinary team created a 45-item online survey for respondents reporting loss of someone to suicide after prescription opioid change. It includes 4 screeners (eg., Do you believe that someone close to you died by suicide after a change in pain medication?). Other items include relationship to the decedent and characteristics of the death. Recruitment involved postings on Facebook, Reddit, Twitter, usually asking “Have you lost someone with pain to suicide?” Over 10 months, 48 respondents passed the screeners and reported both a gender (30 male, 18 female) and race (42 White, 6 Other) for a decedent, from 30 states. For these 48, 38 respondents were "confident" the death was an "intentional act". Among them, 31 affirmed that they “consider yourself to be in a family relationship” with the decedent, while 17 responded “No”. Of those 31, 21 endorsed typical family relationships (eg. parent, spouse). However, 6 of 31 described the relationship as “friend”, 4 as “self”. Among 41 respondents, 35 said opioids had been reduced, but 2 said they had been increased, and 4 avowed not knowing. Of 45 who reached the end of the survey, 35 agreed to be contacted for future study. Public recruitment to engage people who have lost someone to suicide is possible. Respondents may include friends, family, and persons who have not died by suicide, but may be at risk. Formal research beyond pilot stage, as is planned, requires professional outreach, as well as safety plans to respond to persons who may be thinking about suicide. Funding provided via an internal grant from the University of Alabama's School of Medicine. Reports have found associations between prescription opioid stoppage and suicide, without detail as to how such suicides happen. Psychological autopsies could be revelatory but require enlisting survivors who may distrust health systems. This pilot assessed the feasibility of using social media to recruit survivors. A multi-disciplinary team created a 45-item online survey for respondents reporting loss of someone to suicide after prescription opioid change. It includes 4 screeners (eg., Do you believe that someone close to you died by suicide after a change in pain medication?). Other items include relationship to the decedent and characteristics of the death. Recruitment involved postings on Facebook, Reddit, Twitter, usually asking “Have you lost someone with pain to suicide?” Over 10 months, 48 respondents passed the screeners and reported both a gender (30 male, 18 female) and race (42 White, 6 Other) for a decedent, from 30 states. For these 48, 38 respondents were "confident" the death was an "intentional act". Among them, 31 affirmed that they “consider yourself to be in a family relationship” with the decedent, while 17 responded “No”. Of those 31, 21 endorsed typical family relationships (eg. parent, spouse). However, 6 of 31 described the relationship as “friend”, 4 as “self”. Among 41 respondents, 35 said opioids had been reduced, but 2 said they had been increased, and 4 avowed not knowing. Of 45 who reached the end of the survey, 35 agreed to be contacted for future study. Public recruitment to engage people who have lost someone to suicide is possible. Respondents may include friends, family, and persons who have not died by suicide, but may be at risk. Formal research beyond pilot stage, as is planned, requires professional outreach, as well as safety plans to respond to persons who may be thinking about suicide. Funding provided via an internal grant from the University of Alabama's School of Medicine.

Surveys of people who experience homelessness can portray their life and healthcare experiences with a level of statistical precision; however, few have explored how the very same surveys can deliver qualitative insights as well. In responding to surveys, people experiencing homelessness can use the margins to highlight health and social concerns that investigators failed to anticipate that standard question batteries miss. This study describes the unprompted comments of a large national survey of Veterans with homeless experiences. The Primary Care Quality-Homeless Services Tailoring (PCQ-HOST) survey presented 85 close-ended items to solicit social and psychological experiences, health conditions, and patient ratings of primary care. Amongst 5377 Veterans responding to the paper survey, 657 (12%) offered 1933 unprompted comments across nearly all domains queried. Using a team-based content analysis approach, we coded and organised survey comments by survey domain, and identified emergent themes. Respondents used comments for many purposes. They noted when questions called for more nuanced responses than those allowed, especially 'sometimes' or 'not applicable' on sensitive questions, such as substance use, where recovery status was not queried. On such matters, the options of 'no' and 'yes' failed to capture important contextual and historical information that mattered to respondents, such as being in recovery. Respondents also elaborated on negative and positive care experiences, often naming specific clinics or clinicians. This study highlights the degree to which members of vulnerable populations, who participate in survey research, want researchers to know the reasons behind their responses and topics (like chronic pain and substance use disorders) that could benefit from open-ended response options. Understanding patient perspectives can help improve care. Quantitative data from surveys can provide statistical precision but may miss key patient perspectives. The content that patients write into survey margins can highlight shortfalls of a survey and point towards future areas of inquiry. Veterans with homeless experience want to provide additional detail about their lives and care experiences in ways that transcend the boundaries of close-ended survey questions. Questions on substance use proved especially likely to draw comments that went beyond the permitted response options, often to declare that the respondent was in recovery. Respondents frequently clarified aspects of their care experiences related to pain, pain care, transportation and experiences of homelessness.

Introduction Unsheltered homelessness is a strongly debated public issue. The study objective is to identify personal and community characteristics associated with unsheltered homelessness in veterans and to test for interactions between these characteristics. Methods In a 2018 national survey of U.S. veterans with homeless experiences; investigators assessed unsheltered time; psychosocial characteristics; and community measures of shelter access, weather, and rental affordability. Associations between these characteristics and unsheltered status were tested in July–August 2020. This study also tested whether the count of personal risk factors interacted with community characteristics in predicting unsheltered status. Results Among 5,406 veterans, 481 (8.9%) reported ≥7 nights unsheltered over 6 months. This group was more likely to report criminal justice history, poor social support, medical and drug problems, financial hardship, and being unmarried. Their communities had poorer shelter access and warmer temperatures. The likelihood of unsheltered experience rose with risk factor count from 2.0% (0–1) to 8.4% (2–3) and to 24.2% (4–11). Interaction tests showed that the increase was greater for communities with warmer weather and higher rents (p<0.05). Conclusions Among veterans experiencing homelessness, unsheltered experiences correlate with individual and community risk factors. Communities wishing to address unsheltered homelessness will need to consider action at both levels.

Objectives: Patients experiencing homelessness (PEH) with serious mental illness (SMI) have poor satisfaction with primary care. We assessed if primary care teams tailored for homeless patients (Homeless-Patient Aligned Care Teams (H-PACTs)) provide this population with superior experiences than mainstream primary care and explored whether integrated behavioral health and social services were associated with favorable experiences. Methods: We surveyed VA PEH with SMI (n = 1095) to capture the valence of their primary care experiences in 4 domains (Access/Coordination, Patient-Clinician Relationships, Cooperation, and Homeless-Specific Needs). We surveyed clinicians (n = 52) from 29 H-PACTs to elucidate if their clinics had embedded mental health, addiction, social work, and/or housing services. We counted these services in each H-PACT (0-4) and classified H-PACTs as having high (3-4) versus low (0-2) service integration. We controlled for demographics, housing history, and needs in comparing H-PACT versus mainstream experiences; and experiences in high versus low integration H-PACTs. Results: Among respondents, 969 (91%) had complete data and 626 (62%) were in H-PACTs. After covariate adjustment, compared to mainstream respondents, H-PACT respondents were more likely (P < .01) to report favorable experiences (AORs = 1.7-2.1) and less likely to report unfavorable experiences (AORs = 0.5-0.6) in all 4 domains. Of 29 H-PACTs, 27.6% had high integration. High integration H-PACT respondents were twice as likely as low integration H-PACT respondents to report favorable access/coordination experiences (AOR = 1.7). Conclusions: Homeless-tailored clinics with highly-integrated services were associated with better care experiences among PEH with SMI. These observational data suggest that tailored primary care with integrated services may improve care perceptions among complex patients.

Background: More than 1 million Americans receive primary care from federal homeless health care programs yearly. Vulnerabilities that can make care challenging include pain, addiction, psychological distress, and a lack of shelter. Research on the effectiveness of tailoring services for this population is limited. Objective: The aim was to examine whether homeless-tailored primary care programs offer a superior patient experience compared with nontailored (“mainstream”) programs overall, and for highly vulnerable patients. Research Design: National patient survey comparing 26 US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Medical Centers’ homeless-tailored primary care (“H-PACT”s) to mainstream primary care (“mainstream PACT”s) at the same locations. Participants: A total of 5766 homeless-experienced veterans. Measures: Primary care experience on 4 scales: Patient-Clinician Relationship, Cooperation, Accessibility/Coordination, and Homeless-Specific Needs. Mean scores (range: 1–4) were calculated and dichotomized as unfavorable versus not. We counted key vulnerabilities (chronic pain, unsheltered homelessness, severe psychological distress, and history of overdose, 0–4), and categorized homeless-experienced veterans as having fewer (≤1) and more (≥2) vulnerabilities. Results: H-PACTs outscored mainstream PACTs on all scales (all P<0.001). Unfavorable care experiences were more common in mainstream PACTs compared with H-PACTs, with adjusted risk differences of 11.9% (95% CI=6.3–17.4), 12.6% (6.2–19.1), 11.7% (6.0–17.3), and 12.6% (6.2–19.1) for Relationship, Cooperation, Access/Coordination, and Homeless-Specific Needs, respectively. For the Relationship and Cooperation scales, H-PACTs were associated with a greater reduction in unfavorable experience for patients with ≥2 vulnerabilities versus ≤1 (interaction P<0.0001). Conclusions: Organizations that offer primary care for persons experiencing homelessness can improve the primary care experience by tailoring the design and delivery of services.

Background: Initiatives to expand Veterans' access to purchased health care outside Veterans Health Administration (VHA) facilities ("community care") present care coordination challenges for Veterans experiencing homelessness. Objective: Among Veterans with homeless experiences, to evaluate community care use and satisfaction, and compare perceptions of care coordination among Veterans using VHA services and community care to those using VHA services without community care. Research Design: Cross-sectional analysis of responses to a 2018 mailed survey. Subjects: VHA outpatients with homeless experiences. Measures: Self-reported use of community care, Likert-style ratings of satisfaction with that care, and Access/Coordination experiences from the Primary Care Quality-Homeless (PCQ-H) survey. Results: Of 4777 respondents, 1325 (26.7%) reported using community care; most of this subsample affirmed satisfaction with the community care they received (83%) and its timeliness (75%). After covariate adjustment, Veteran characteristics associated with greater community care use included female sex, being of retirement age and nonmarried, and having higher education, more financial hardship, >= 3 chronic conditions, psychological distress, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Satisfaction with community care was lower among patients with travel barriers, psychological distress, and less social support. Compared with those using the VHA without community care, Veterans using VHA services and community care were more likely to report unfavorable access/coordination experiences [odds ratio (OR)=1.34, confidence interval (CI)=1.15-1.57]. This included hassles following referral (OR=1.37, CI=1.14-1.65) and perceived delays in receiving health care (OR=1.38, CI=1.19-1.61). Conclusions: Veterans with homeless experiences value community care options. Potential access benefits are balanced with risks of unfavorable coordination experiences for vulnerable Veterans with limited resources.

Background:Patients with co-occurring chronic pain and opioid use disorder (OUD) have unique needs that may present challenges for clinicians and health care systems. Primary care providers' (PCPs) capacity to deliver high quality, research-informed care for this population is unknown. The objective of this study was to develop and test a questionnaire of factors influencing PCP capacity to treat co-occurring chronic pain and OUD. Methods:Capacity to Treat Co-Occurring Chronic Pain and Opioid Use Disorder (CAP-POD) questionnaire items were developed over a 2-year process including literature review, semi-structured interviews, and expert panel review. In 2018, a national sample of 509 PCPs was recruited through email to complete a questionnaire including the initial 44-item draft CAP-POD questionnaire. CAP-POD items were analyzed for dimensionality, inter-item reliability, and construct validity. Results:Principal component analysis resulted in a 22-item questionnaire. Twelve more items were removed for parsimony, resulting in a final 10-item questionnaire with the following 4 scales: (1) Motivation to Treat patients with chronic pain and OUD (α = .87), (2) Trust in Evidence (α = .87), (3) Assessing Risk (α = .82), and (4) Patient Access to therapies (α = .79). These scales were associated with evidence-based practice attitudes, knowledge of pain management, and self-reported behavioral adherence to best practice recommendations. Conclusion:We developed a brief, 10-item questionnaire that assesses factors influencing the capacity of PCPs to implement best practice recommendations for the treatment of co-occurring chronic pain and OUD. The questionnaire demonstrated good reliability and initial evidence of validity, and may prove useful in future research as well as clinical settings. Plain language abstract:Patients with co-occurring chronic pain and opioid use disorder (OUD) have unique needs that may present challenges for clinicians and health care systems. Primary care providers' (PCPs) ability to deliver high quality, research-informed care for this population is unknown. There are no validated instruments to assess factors influencing PCP capacity to implement best practices for treating these patients. The objective of this study was to develop and test a questionnaire of factors influencing PCP capacity to treat co-occurring chronic pain and OUD. We recruited 509 PCPs to participate in an online questionnaire that included 44 potential items that assess PCP capacity. Analyses resulted in a 10-item questionnaire that assesses factors influencing capacity to implement best practice recommendations for the treatment of co-occurring chronic pain and OUD. PCPs reported moderately high confidence in the strength and quality of evidence for best practices, and in their ability to identify patients at risk. However, PCPs reported low motivation to treat co-occurring chronic pain and OUD, and perceived patients' access to relevant services as suboptimal, highlighting two areas that should be targeted with tailored implementation strategies. The 10-item Capacity to Treat Chronic Pain and Opioid Use Disorder (CAP-POD) questionnaire can be used for two purposes: (1) to assess factors influencing PCP capacity before implementation and identify areas that may require improvement for implementation and (2) to evaluate implementation interventions aimed at increasing PCP capacity to treat this population.