Mineral reserves in perennial tree organs buffer crop nutrition across seasons, but their magnitude and location vary among species. We hypothesized that deciduous almond, constrained to a narrow growing season, would commit to building large mineral reserves in perennial organs. In contrast, evergreen olive, able to take up minerals year-round, would rely on continuous uptake. We grew deciduous almond and evergreen olive trees under a range of nitrogen (N, 10-150 mg L-1), phosphorus (P, 1-15 mg L-1), and potassium (K, 10-150 mg L-1) mineral concentrations in the irrigation water and monitored seasonal mineral composition in roots, wood, and leaves. Trees were later destructively harvested to determine organ biomass and mineral mass. Almond and olive differed in their mineral allocation (Fig. 8 - graphical abstract). Almond leaf concentrations stabilized after peak vegetative growth, whereas olive leaves accumulated minerals continuously. Almond fruit concentrations were elastic across the mineral application range. Almond leaf concentrations were largely insensitive to mineral application. Olive root and leaf concentrations increased across the tested range. Almond biomass peaked, then declined at high N. Olive biomass scaled continuously with mineral application. Whole-tree mass balance revealed mineral reserves equivalent to up to 1.5 years of annual removal in almond, where most of the reserve turns over via senescence. In contrast, in olive, minerals accumulate in the roots and leaves up to 10 seasons, contradicting our initial hypothesis. Leaf mineral concentration reliably classified a tree's mineral status in olive, but only for K in almond. Precise almond fertilization may therefore require whole-tree mass-balance approaches rather than leaf diagnostics.

Image analysis of pits and grains provide alternative routes for overcoming the invasive approach of genomic tools in the investigation of archaeological or modern plant material, which is only seldom a viable option due to the complex and laborious methodologies required. Nevertheless, any investigation of pit morphology and cultivar interpretation requires a high quality, comprehensive dataset for comparison. Such a benchmark dataset for the morphology of olive (Olea europaea) pits is presented in this paper, designed to facilitate similar research and establish a base for future investigations. The dataset was established by image analysis of pits of 18 olive cultivars that were photographed in both lateral and dorsal positions. A dedicated MATLAB® code was developed to extract the silhouettes of each pit and to calculate 16 morphometric traits of each view of the pit. Altogether, a total of 1008 photos of 504 pits of the 18 cultivars, together with their detailed morphometric description and statistical analysis are available here. These were used to test the accuracy of the dataset and the new approach in representing the different cultivars.

Omphacinon, the oil from unripe olives (Olea europaea L.), occupied a privileged position in Mediterranean materia medica from the Hellenistic period to the late Middle Ages. Sources in Greek, Latin, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic record its use in oral hygiene, dermatological care, antiperspirant preparations, and as a base for medicinal ointments and perfumes; Dioscorides identifies it as the oil best suited to medicinal use. Despite cost and lower yield, ancient practitioners preferred unripe fruit. A preference persisting across more than a millennium and across different medical traditions raises a testable question: do the chemical features of unripe olive oil correspond to the medicinal-preventive advantages attributed to it in the historical record? We work across three bodies of evidence: primary sources (Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, Columella, the Geoponika, Paulus Aegineta, the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud, Maimonides, Ibn al-Baytar), archaeological reports from production sites (Pompeii, Herculaneum, Delos, Paestum), and the modern analytical literature on unripe olive oil composition. Botanical names were verified against the Medicinal Plant Names Services (MPNS) and World Flora Online (March 2026); reporting follows the Four Pillars of Best Practice in Ethnopharmacology and the Consensus Statement on Phytochemical Characterisation (ConPhyMP) framework. Modern analyses point to a consistent picture: oil from unripe fruit carries higher levels of polyphenols, tocopherols, and squalene, with lower volatile content and greater oxidative stability than oil from ripe fruit. This profile makes chemical sense of several uses recorded in the historical sources. Antimicrobial activity is relevant to oral hygiene; squalene-mediated emollient effects are relevant to dermatological care; the antioxidant profile favors the oil as a stable carrier for medicated and aromatic preparations. The strength of the evidence varies. Oxidative stability and carrier oil functionality have firm chemical support. Oral health uses are mechanistically plausible and consistent with clinical data on olive oil. Dermatological uses rest on indirect evidence. Antiperspirant claims remain speculative, and the rabbinic claim of depilation is not adequately explained by current chemistry. Omphacinon is best treated as a candidate for evidence-based validation through controlled comparison with mature olive oil. It provides no grounds for therapeutic recommendation.

With global climate change, heatwaves have become more frequent and severe in avocado-growing regions. High temperatures combined with wind and low humidity are problematic for avocados, especially during the early developmental stage of the young fruitlets. Hence, heatwaves during this phenological stage are considered a major limiting factor for avocado productivity. This study evaluated the effects of operating pulsing sprinklers or sprayers installed above the canopy during spring heatwaves over three consecutive seasons in a Hass avocado orchard. We evaluated foliage and fruitlet temperature (using remote and proximal sensing), stem water potential, stomatal conductance, salt accumulation on the leaves, and productivity. The cooling system reduced the foliage temperature by 6-8 °C and fruitlet temperature by 5-10 °C with respect to uncooled trees. Stem water potential was increased by 0.8-2.0 MPa in the treatment plots compared to the control. The cooling treatments led to an average 42% yield increase over the next 3 years. No significant differences were found between the sprinklers and sprayer for any of the measured parameters. Results indicate the effectiveness of an evaporative cooling system for mitigating heatwave damage and improving avocado productivity.

Background and Aims: Potassium (K) fertilization is vital for grapevine growth and development, as well as for the quality and yield of grape berries. However, conducting experimental field studies to learn about the nutritional demand for K in table grapes can be challenging due to significant K storage in the soil. We examined the effects of various K application levels on two table grape cultivars: the early-bearing green "Early Sweet," and the late-bearing red "Crimson," for three consecutive seasons. Methods and Results: Grapevines were grown in 500-L lysimeters filled with perlite and subjected to three K-fertigation treatments (15, 40, and 72 mg L-1 K). The lowest K level resulted in improved K-use efficiency (> 80%) in both cultivars across the three seasons. However, this efficiency came at the cost of reduced vegetative growth, reflected by reduced leaf area index, and decreased pruning weight in "Early Sweet." Stomatal conductance also declined under low K supply toward the end of the summer, underscoring this mineral's (elemental nutrient's) role in stomatal regulation. Together, these resulted in reduced daily water consumption. Low K supply resulted in lower fruit juice pH in the 2022 and 2023 seasons in "Crimson." Conversely, elevated K levels in 2023 and 2024 suppressed sugar accumulation in developing berries of both cultivars. Conclusions: Varying K fertilizer levels significantly affected vegetative growth, physiological processes, and berry sugar content of early- and late-bearing table grape cultivars. Significance of the Study: Optimization of K levels is essential for promoting growth, nutrient uptake, yield, and fruit quality in table grapes.

Local olive germplasm of the southern Levant includes wild populations of var. sylvestris and local traditional cultivars that are thought to be well-adapted to the region’s arid conditions. By controlling water availability, we tested the response of the Barnea cultivar, two local traditional cultivars (MLL1 and MLL7) and var. sylvestris to low (100%), moderate (33%), and severe (10%) evapotranspiration (ETa) conditions. Measurements of stomatal conductance, relative water content, stem water potential, and the net photosynthesis showed a stronger response of the Barnea cultivar to reduced ETa conditions in comparison to the other three investigated groups. Additionally, when exposed to 100% ETa, the net photosynthesis capacity of MLL1 was significantly higher than that measured in MLL7. Therefore, net photosynthesis, as an indicator of tree productivity, can explain the dominance of MLL1 (Souri cultivar) in local traditional orchards and the negligible abundance of MLL7 (unknown cultivar) as a fruit-bearing tree. Considering that climate change is already influencing olive cultivation, the results of this study stress the potential of the southern Levant local olive germplasm in maintaining sustainable olive horticulture.

We used a unique experimental set-up in which adult fruit-bearing trees were grown in inert media in containers, exposed to eight N-fertigation treatments (5-200 mg N L-1) over 3 years, to decipher biomass and nutrient partitioning among the pomegranate's tree organs, information that is scarcely reported for fruit trees grown in soil. The ratio of aboveground to belowground biomass responses followed a Gaussian curve, peaking at 100 ppm N. Aboveground and belowground biomass increased sharply with increasing N availability, peaking at 50 mg L-1 with 39 and 7 kg biomass, respectively. N accumulation was much higher in the branches than in the trunk, reaching a plateau in the former at 20 ppm N. Its accumulation in the woody and non-woody roots was higher than in the aboveground parts, and its level continued to increase with increasing N-application levels. Low N availability (<20 ppm) caused a reduction in phosphorus in belowground tissues (up to 28% in woody and non-woody roots). In contrast, high N levels were associated with a reduction of up to 50% in potassium and calcium in the roots. N availability seems to have a substantial effect on biomass partitioning between pomegranate organs and on the accumulation of macro- and microelements in the tissues.

Table olives are traditionally harvested manually, however, with the increasing labor cost, there is an urgent need to develop mechanical harvesting options for this product. The current study investigated the effectiveness of post-harvest field treatments (PHFT) in reducing bruising in Manzanilla olives, alongside evaluating additional cultivars as potential substitutes in commercial table olive production. Over three seasons, Manzanilla olives were treated immediately after harvest with a diluted NaOH solution or other chemicals, while bruising incidence and sensorial impact were assessed following Spanish-style fermentation. The results demonstrated that only the 1% NaOH field treatment among compounds studied, effectively reduced bruising across multiple seasons without altering the sensorial characteristics of Manzanilla olives, as confirmed by a triangle testing method. No significant differences in bruising levels of fermented olives were observed between day (30 °C) and night (20 °C) harvesting (p < 0.05), suggesting that temperature variations did not significantly affect the olive quality. Hojiblanca and Picual olives were more robust during mechanical harvesting with a trunk shaker or electrical comb, however, using an overhead harvester severely damaged even the relatively resistant cultivars. Sensory evaluation through a paired-comparison test and ranking tests indicated no significant preference difference between Hojiblanca and Manzanilla (p < 0.05), supporting Hojiblanca's potential as a substitute for Manzanilla in table olive production. This study highlights the importance of PHFT and cultivar selection in optimizing quality and consumer satisfaction in mechanically harvested table olive production.

Evaluation of phosphorus (P) level is vital for vineyard management; however, our current understanding of how P supply affects table grapes, particularly growth, productivity, and quality parameters, is limited. We investigated the influence of various P-application levels on two table grape cultivars: the early-bearing white 'Early Sweet' and the late-bearing red 'Crimson'. During two consecutive seasons, grapevines were grown in 500-L lysimeters with perlite as the growth medium and subjected to three P-fertigation treatments (1, 5 and 15 mg L-1 P). High P-utilization efficiency (>90 %) was achieved for 1 and 5 mg L-1 P. Levels of P application were reflected in the P levels of diagnostic leaves, with blade analysis providing more consistent results than petiole analysis. Increased P supply reduced sugar accumulation in developing fruit. Primary cluster number was reduced with increased P supply for 'Crimson' vines in 2022. Low P caused a reduction in SPAD in leaves toward the end of the summer, indicating the importance of P for chlorophyll stability. In addition, low levels of P led to reduced vegetative growth, as reflected in evapotranspiration and leaf area index in 'Early Sweet' and in the dry pruning weight of both cultivars. Precise P management in 'Early Sweet' and 'Crimson' may increase growth, yield, and fruit quality, and will enable better P-utilization efficiency, thereby reducing costs and environmental contamination.

Virgin olive oil (VOO) quality is defined by both chemical and sensory parameters. While the chemical parameters are objective and measured using instrument-based methods, sensory quality evaluation is based upon human panels, which can be subjective, have less repeatability, suffer from fatigue, and require long and costly training. Tasting biases could be minimized by a trained panel, but using humans as a testing instrument is inevitably prone to various psychological biases, stimulus-related factors, and carry-over effects. The objectives of this study were to evaluate instrumental methodologies that will assist the existing human panel in assessing the sensory characteristics of VOO and to develop chemistry-based predicting models for sensory properties in the oil using VOO samples originating from the US and Israel. Our results indicated that oil rancidity highly correlated with the contents of chemical components contents; 1-penten-3-one, 3-hexen-1-ol, (E)-2-pentanal, and 1-octen-3-ol are the major volatiles associated with rancidity defects (low concentrations of these compounds). Positive sensory attributes, such as fruitiness, correlated with 1- acetoxypinoresinol and hexanal, while bitterness correlated with pinoresinol, the aldehydic form of oleuropein aglycones, and the dialdehydic form of oleuropein aglycone. The random forest model suggested that luteolin, (E)-2-hexenal, 1-penten-3-one, and C18:0 are the most useful measurements in predicting the occurrence of sensory defects in the olive oil samples included. In other words, when these compounds are below or above a certain threshold, a defect, such as rancidity, is more likely to be found by the sensory panel.

Jojoba wax is gaining popularity among cosmetics consumers for its skin wound healing and rejuvenation bioactivities, attributed to collagen and hyaluronic acid synthesis. However, information regarding wax phytochemical composition and quality parameters, as well as effect of cultivation practices, and fertilization in particular, on wax quality is limited. The aim of the current work was to study the effect of nitrogen (N) availability to jojoba plants on wax phytochemical composition and beneficial skin-related contents. For this, wax quality from a six-year fertilization experiment with five N application levels was evaluated. The chemical parameters included antioxidant activity, free fatty acid, total tocopherol, total phytosterol and oxidative stability, as well as fatty acid and fatty alcohol profile. Our results reveal that the majority of wax quality traits were affected by N fertilization level, either positively or negatively. Interestingly, while fatty acids were unaffected, fatty alcohol composition was significantly altered by N level. Additionally, fruit load also largely affected wax quality, and, due to jojoba’s biennial alternate bearing cycles, harvest year significantly affected all measured parameters. Results shed light on the effects of N application on various biochemical constituents of jojoba wax, and imply that N availability should be considered part of the entire agricultural management plan to enhance wax quality. Some traits are also suggested as possible chemical quality parameters for jojoba wax.

Traditional olive (Olea europaea) orchards have been grown for thousands of years and still occupy most of the world’s cultivated olive areas. To compete with olive oil produced in the higher-yielding intensive orchards, the oil from traditional orchards must be of high quality. We evaluated oil quality—potential and actual (under commercial conditions)—and tested the stages in the production chain that are likely to reduce oil quality in the traditional sector in the Middle East region. Our findings show a clear negative impact of growers’ traditional practices on both the chemical and sensory characteristics of olive oil. The oil originating from the commercial process had higher free fatty acid and lower polyphenol and carotenoid contents, lower stability, lower pungency, lower fruitiness, lower bitterness, and a higher prevalence of organoleptic defects than oil that originated from fruit picked from the same trees during the experimental procedure. The current common harvesting technique of pole beating significantly increased fruit injury and fruit with mold, leading to a reduction in oil polyphenols and an increase in free fatty acid levels compared with those resulting from manual picking. In addition, after harvest, storing the fruit for more than 48 hours in plastic bags dramatically reduced the oil quality. The traditional olive orchard could be a source of high-quality extra virgin olive oil. However, fruit handling—from the trees until the end of the oil extraction process—is performed incorrectly, thus adversely affecting the oil quality.

BACKGROUND:Populations of Olea europaea subsp. europaea var. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated olives, are scattered across the Mediterranean Basin. However, after millennia of possible hybridization with cultivated varieties, the genetic identity of many of these populations remain questionable. In the southern Levant, the plausible primary domestication center of olives, many of the naturally growing olive (NGOs) are considered feral, having developed from nearby olive groves. Here, we investigated the genetic identity of NGOs population in the Carmel region, hypothesizing that their specific location, which limit anemophily, provided an opportunity for the persistence of genuine var. sylvestris. RESULTS:We mapped more than 1,000 NGOs on the Kurkar ridge along the Carmel coast, within and outside the residential area of Atlit and used simple sequence repeats of 14 loci to assess the spatial genetic structure of 129 NGOs. Genetic diversity parameters and genetic distances between NGO and cultivated olives, as well as phenotypic and morphometric analyses of their oil content and pits, respectively, indicated the presence of a genuine var. sylvestris population. However, NGOs within the residential area of Atlit and old settlements showed an intermediate admix genetic structure, indicating on hybridization with local varieties, a consequence of their proximity to cultivated trees. CONCLUSIONS:Integrating the results of genetic and phenotypic analyses we provide crucial evidence of the presence of a genuine var. sylvestris population in the southern Levant, in close geographical proximity to archaeological sites with the earliest evidence of olive exploitation in the ancient world. We supplement the results with recommendations for a conservation program that combines municipal requirements and the urgent need to preserve the largest population of var. sylvestris in the southern Levant.

Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis L.) wax was previously reported to increase cutaneous wound healing, ameliorate acne and psoriasis manifestations, and reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. However, its potential cosmetic properties have not been fully investigated. Thus, the current study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activities of jojoba wax and its impact on the synthesis of extracellular components following topical application. The fatty acid and fatty alcohol profiles of two industrial and two lab-scale cold-press jojoba waxes were analyzed along with total tocopherol and phytosterol content. The dermo-cosmetic effect of all jojoba wax preparations was evaluated ex-vivo, using the human skin organ culture model, which emulates key features of intact tissue. The ability of jojoba wax to reduce secreted levels of key pro-inflammatory cytokines and the safety of the applications in the ex-vivo model were evaluated. In addition, the impact on the synthesis of pro-collagen and hyaluronic acid levels upon treatment was investigated. The results demonstrate that topically applied jojoba wax can reduce LPS-induced secretion of IL-6, IL-8, and TNFα by approx. 30% compared to untreated skin. This effect was enhanced when treatment was combined with low non-toxic levels of Triton X-100, and its efficacy was similar to the anti-inflammatory activity of dexamethasone used as a positive control. In addition, mRNA and protein levels of collagen III and synthesis of hyaluronic acid were markedly increased upon topical application of jojoba. Moreover, the enhanced content of extracellular matrix (ECM) components correlated with the enhanced expression of TGFβ1. Collectively, our results further demonstrate that jojoba can reduce local skin inflammation, and this effect may be increased by emulsifier which increases its bioavailability. In addition, the finding that topical application of jojoba wax enhances the synthesis of pro-collagen and hyaluronic acid and may be beneficial in the treatment of age-related manifestations.

In this chapter we present a synthesis of recommendations for conducting field experiments with honey bees in the context of agricultural pollination. We begin with an overview of methods for determining the mating system requirements of plants and the efficacy of specific pollinators. We describe methods for evaluating the pollen-vectoring capacity of bees at the level of individuals or colonies and follow with methods for determining optimum colony field stocking densities. We include sections for determining post-harvest effects of pollination, the effects of colony management (including glasshouse enclosure) on bee pollination performance, and a brief section on considerations about pesticides and their impact on pollinator performance. A final section gives guidance on determining the economic valuation of honey bee colony inputs at the scale of the farm or region.

Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) is cultivated for its seeds, which contain a high-value liquid wax. There is little known regarding irrigation requirements of intensively cultivated jojoba. The project’s objectives were to evaluate the effects of irrigation regime on water status, growth, yield, and water productivity (WP, wax yield per unit of water applied) of intensely cultivated jojoba. An experiment was conducted over six years in a 14-year-old commercial plantation in Israel’s Northern Negev Desert. Treatments included: Control irrigation according to best commercial practice of returning reference evapotranspiration multiplied by a crop coefficient (Kc) of 0.5; Low irrigation providing 75

Among the commercial cannabis varieties, some are high yielders but characterized by a relatively poor root system. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil, enabling vegetative development that directly affects yield, as vigorous plants have more resources to support reproduction. Moreover, healthy foliage is a primary key to high assimilation rates, leading to better production of photosynthetic products, including cannabinoids and terpenes, which are the main active components of cannabis. We grafted a high-THC variety, named 'Freud Super-Ego' (FSE) onto three chemotypes of rootstocks: high-THC (T), high-CBD (C), and Balanced (B). All the rootstocks had significantly greater root biomass compared to FSE. All the grafting treatments significantly improved FSE's vegetative indices and yield. The best overall vegetative performance - height, stem circumference, number of mature leaves - was that of plants grafted onto the Balanced and high-CBD rootstocks, resulting in high yields as well. However, the greatest number of inflorescences was counted when FSE was grafted onto a high-THC rootstock. According to leaf mineral content analysis, the highest nitrogen and phosphorus levels were found in leaves of FSE grafted on the balanced rootstock. The cannabinoid content profile analysis revealed that all grafting treatments raised the THC level in FSE's inflorescences by 8-12 % in comparison to the non-grafted control, and the THC rootstock led to the highest THC level. The results indicate the importance of grafting in cannabis as a tool to increase the productivity and quality of the product.

Table grape production requires adequate nitrogen (N) supply to sustain vine performance and obtain high yields. However, excess agricultural N fertilization is a major source of groundwater contamination and air pollution. Therefore, there is a strong need for empirically based precision N fertilization schemes in vineyards, for optimizing grape yield and quality while minimizing their environmental impact. Our aim was to unequivocally quantify table grape N requirements, elucidate the drivers of daily N uptake, and quantify the relationship between fertigation N levels and vine growth, fruit yield, composition, and quality. For this, forty 'Early Sweet' (early-maturing, white) and 'Crimson seedless' (late-maturing, red) vines were grown in 500L drainage-lysimeters for 2 fruiting seasons, while subjected to five continuous N fertigation treatments ranging from 10 to 200 ppm. Irrigation and drainage volume and macronutrient concentrations were measured bi-weekly. Vegetative growth, leaf mineral composition, and fruit ripening were monitored, and the fruit harvested and analyzed for quality-related parameters. Vine temporal N uptake across seasons and treatments was largely driven by N availability and water uptake, independently of fruit phenology. N levels affected the composition of other macro and micro-nutrients in diagnostic tissues. A dose-dependent effect of N on plant growth, fruit ripening, yield, and fruit size and composition highlighted doses that improve both yield and quality, and nitrogen use efficiency. Our findings lay the basis for data-driven precision N nutrition in vineyards for optimizing yield, fruit quality, and the environmental sustainability of commercial vineyards.

Leaks and clogs in drip-irrigated orchards lead to variable yields, reduced efficiency and profitability. Frequent monitoring of irrigation systems by farmers is important but costly, labor-intensive, and not easily implementable on a regular basis. Moreover, in subsurface drip-irrigation systems, it is difficult to visually detect malfunctions. The objective of this study was to develop processing methodologies based on thermal remote sensing, to produce classification models for detecting irrigation malfunctions in orchards, and distinguish between different types of malfunctions. A thermal camera mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle platform was used to acquire thermal images in three commercial almond and jojoba plantations with subsurface drip irrigation. An image-processing pipeline was developed to extract plant-specific features, and classification models were used to detect malfunctions in individual plants. Plants were segmented using four algorithms: Otsu, continuous max-flow and min-cut, full-width-half-max, and watershed. Thirty-two features were extracted from the canopy temperature of each plant and normalized with meteorological data. The most significant features were selected using a recursive feature elimination method. Three classification models (multiclass, binary, hierarchical) were constructed using five classification algorithms. Performance was evaluated with k-fold cross-validation and an independent test set. In the almond plants orchard, the hierarchical classification approach with support vector machine (SVM) algorithms yielded 68% accuracy and 33% false-positive rate (FPR) for clog detection and 2.8% FPR for leak detection. In the jojoba plantation, the multiclass classification approach with SVM algorithms gave 82% accuracy for clog and leak detection with 0% FPR.