The kukri snakes of the genus Oligodon Fitzinger, 1826 reach the westernmost limits of their distribution in Middle and Southwest Asia (Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkmenistan), and the Palearctic portions of Pakistan. In this article, we review the systematics and distribution of the two species native to this region, Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) and Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) based on an integrative approach combining morphological, molecular, and species distribution modeling (SDM) data. Phylogenetic analyses recover O. taeniolatus populations from Iran and Turkmenistan in a clade with the O. arnensis species complex, rendering the former species paraphyletic relative to O. taeniolatus sensu stricto on the Indian subcontinent. To correct this, we resurrect the name Contia transcaspica Nikolsky, 1902 from the synonymy of O. taeniolatus and assign it to populations in Middle–Southwest Asia. So far, Oligodon transcaspicus comb. et stat. nov. is known only from the Köpet–Dag Mountain Range of northeast Iran and southern Turkmenistan, but SDM mapping suggests it may have a wider range. Genetic samples of O. “arnensis” from northern Pakistan are nested in a clade sister to the recently described Oligodon churahensis Mirza, Bhardwaj & Patel, 2021, and are phylogenetically separate from O. arnensis sensu stricto in south India and Sri Lanka. Based on morphological similarity, the Afghanistan and Pakistan populations are assigned to Oligodon russelius (Daudin, 1803) and we synonymize O. churahensis with this species. Our investigation leads us to remove O. taeniolatus from the snake fauna of Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkmenistan, with the consequence that only Oligodon transcaspicus comb. et stat. nov. and O. russelius are present in these countries. Additional studies are needed to resolve the taxonomy of the O. taeniolatus and O. arnensis species complexes on the Indian subcontinent, and an updated key for both groups is provided.

Hemipenial characteristics have historically provided a wealth of comparative morphological characters for the systematic classification of snakes. However, the organs remain poorly known in many groups, particularly tropical and burrowing lineages. Here, we report on hemipenial morphology for 12 species from five genera from the family Uropeltidae: Melanophidium punctatum, M. cf. wynaudense, Plectrurus perrotetii, Rhinophis karinthandani, R. melanoleucus, R. saffragamus, R. sanguineus, Teretrurus cf. hewstoni, Uropeltis bhupathyi, U. cf. ceylanica, U. macrolepis, and U. rajendrani. Many are photographed or illustrated here for the first time. In Melanophidium, the organ is bulbous and mushroom-shaped, with the sulcus spermaticus winding through numerous convoluted folds. In Plectrurus and Teretrurus, it is simple, smooth, and conical. In Sri Lankan Rhinophis and some Uropeltis, the organ generally resembles previously described hemipenes from other species in those genera in being simple, subcylindrical, and covered in fine spines. However, a median lobular process is observed in the Indian species R. karinthandani, R. melanoleucus, and R. sanguineus, seemingly representing a novel bilobate morphology. One species, U. bhupathyi, exhibits a novel, bulbous morphology, but this may be an artifact of preservation. The hemipenes of the Uropeltidae and their sister group Cylindrophiidae resemble some typhlopoid blindsnakes more than their henophidian relatives such as pythons and boas. Whether this is due to convergence related to microhabitat, a form of sexual selection unrelated to ecomorphology, or symplesiomorphy from an ancestral snake morphology is unclear. Gross hemipenial morphology can now serve to diagnose uropeltids to the genus level or species group, though more data and comparative series are needed to determine whether other characters, such as the number and location of spines, can potentially differentiate taxa at finer scales.

The taxonomic status of the nominal taxon Dryophis prasinus flavescens Wall, 1910 is reevaluated herein. Based on molecular data generated from fresh collections of Ahaetulla prasina (H. Boie in F. Boie, 1827) auctorum from Northeast India and, additionally, morphological data from museum specimens originating from the same areas, we resurrect this taxon as Ahaetulla flavescens (Wall, 1910) comb. nov. We clarify the status, identity and locations of its type specimens, rediscover, redescribe and illustrate those specimens and also designate a lectotype in order to effect a proper taxonomic redefinition of this nominal taxon. We provide further details on the morphology and diagnosis of this species and elucidate its phylogenetic position. We also provide a summary of the natural history and distribution of this species. Adding to the known cryptic diversity and genetic divergence within Southeast Asian populations, this work also hints at the need for a taxonomic revision of the A. prasina complex. This work complements a previous study on the A. prasina complex focusing on populations in Indonesia. Taken together, these two studies represent phylogenetic reconstructions from different populations of the A. prasina complex across its distribution range, on the Asian mainland and the surrounding islands.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are assembled from viral proteins. These particles resemble the structure of native virion but are devoid of genetic materials. VLPs are generated by expressing the viral proteins in the laboratory strain of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, or in cell-free conditions followed by their assembly. Also, they can be constructed from proteins of different sources and are called chimeric VLPs. VLPs maintain their tropism and immunogenicity, unlike native viruses which attract investigators in the field of drug delivery, vaccine trial, and gene-targeted therapeutic approach. However, this chapter focuses mostly on the use of VLPs as a device in the perspective of drug delivery.

We revisit the identities of ‘Trimeresurus albolabris’ records from India and Nepal, based on a re-examination of historically mentioned specimens. Based on morphological congruence, we identify an old specimen originally labeled as T. albolabris from ‘Nagpur, Central Province’ as Trimeresurus salazar. We also provide new records of T. salazar based on molecular data from newly collected specimens in Central India. As the range of T. salazar is now known to approach that of its sister species Trimeresurus septentrionalis, we also redescribe T. septentrionalis based on the holotype and referred material. Finally, we examined two historical specimens from “Madras” collected during the Novara Expedition, which we identify as T. davidi, leading to a reassessment of their origin. Consequently, we remove T. albolabris from the list of Indian snake fauna.